Damage to Oral Mucosae Induced by Weekend Alcohol Consumption: The Role of Gender and Alcohol Concentration

Exploring ethanol's toxicity in the oral submucosa: chronic exposure versus abstinence in C57BL/6 mice

Alcohol consumption is a recognised risk factor for the development of precancerous lesions in the oral cavity. This study investigates the effects of chronic ethanol exposure on inflammation and fibrosis in mice.Eighteen C57BL/6 mice were divided into three groups: Group I received only drinking water, while Groups II and III were exposed to 25% ethanol ad libitum for 14 weeks. Group II mice were sacrificed at the end of the 14th week, whereas Group III underwent a 4-week abstinence period before sacrifice. Gene expression related to inflammation and fibrosis, along with histopathological changes in submucosal tissue, was analysed.Chronic ethanol exposure significantly upregulated MAPK signalling markers, as well as inflammatory and fibrotic markers, in submucosal tissue. In Group III, inflammatory markers such as NF-κB, p65, NLRP3, and caspase-1 partially returned to normal levels after abstinence, whereas fibrotic markers, particularly MMP-9, remained elevated. Histopathological analysis of oral submucosa revealed epithelial atrophy and extracellular matrix accumulation in ethanol-exposed mice.These findings suggest that 14 weeks of ethanol exposure induces persistent epithelial damage, inflammation, and fibrosis in the oral submucosa, with incomplete reversal after 4 weeks of abstinence. This underscores the lasting impact of alcohol on oral tissue, even after cessation.

The Oral-Gut Microbiome-Brain Axis in Cognition

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognitive decline and neuronal loss, affecting millions worldwide. Emerging evidence highlights the oral microbiome-a complex ecosystem of bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa as a significant factor in cognitive health. Dysbiosis of the oral microbiome contributes to systemic inflammation, disrupts the blood-brain barrier, and promotes neuroinflammation, processes increasingly implicated in the pathogenesis of AD. This review examines the mechanisms linking oral microbiome dysbiosis to cognitive decline through the oral-brain and oral-gut-brain axis. These interconnected pathways enable bidirectional communication between the oral cavity, gut, and brain via neural, immune, and endocrine signaling. Oral pathogens, such as Porphyromonas gingivalis, along with virulence factors, including lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and gingipains, contribute to neuroinflammation, while metabolic byproducts, such as short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and peptidoglycans, further exacerbate systemic immune activation. Additionally, this review explores the influence of external factors, including diet, pH balance, medication use, smoking, alcohol consumption, and oral hygiene, on oral microbial diversity and stability, highlighting their role in shaping cognitive outcomes. The dynamic interplay between the oral and gut microbiomes reinforces the importance of microbial homeostasis in preserving systemic and neurological health. The interventions, including probiotics, prebiotics, and dietary modifications, offer promising strategies to support cognitive function and reduce the risk of neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD, by maintaining a diverse microbiome. Future longitudinal research is needed to identify the long-term impact of oral microbiome dysbiosis on cognition.

The Protective Role of Cranberries and Blueberries in Oral Cancer

BACKGROUND

Oral cancer has a high prevalence worldwide, and this disease is caused by genetic, immunological, and environmental factors. The main risk factors associated with oral cancer are smoking and alcohol.

RESULTS

There are various strategies to reduce risk factors, including prevention programs as well as the consumption of an adequate diet that includes phytochemical compounds derived from cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon A.) and blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.); these compounds exhibit antitumor properties.

RESULTS

The main outcome of this review is as follows: the properties of phytochemicals derived from cranberries were evaluated for protection against risk factors associated with oral cancer.

CONCLUSIONS

The secondary metabolites of cranberries promote biological effects that provide protection against smoking and alcoholism. An alternative for the prevention of oral cancer can be the consumption of these cranberries and blueberries.