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Feng J, Zhang Y, Morlet-Savary F, Schmitt M, Zhang J, Xiao P, Dumur F, Lalevée J. Ultrafast Sunlight-Induced Polymerization: Unveiling 2-Phenylnaphtho[2,3-d]Thiazole-4,9-dione as a Unique Scaffold for High-Speed and Precision 3D Printing. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024:e2400230. [PMID: 38501752 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202400230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2024] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
A series of 15 dyes based on the 2-phenylnaphtho[2,3-d]thiazole-4,9-dione scaffold and 1 compound based on the 2,3-diphenyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrobenzo[g]quinoxaline-5,10-dione scaffold are studied as photoinitiators. These compounds are used in two- and three-component high-performance photoinitiating systems for the free radical polymerization of trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA) and polyethylene glycol diacrylate (PEGDA) under sunlight. Remarkably, the conversion of TMPTA can reach ≈60% within 20 s, while PEGDA attains a 96% conversion within 90 s. To delve into the intricate chemical mechanisms governing the polymerization, an array of analytical techniques is employed. Specifically, UV-vis absorption and fluorescence spectroscopy, steady-state photolysis, stability experiments, fluorescence quenching experiments, cyclic voltammetry, and electron spin resonance spin trapping (ESR-ST) experiments, collectively contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the photochemical mechanisms. Photoinitiation capacities of these systems are determined using real-time Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (RT-FTIR). Of particular interest is the revelation that, owing to the superior initiation ability of these dyes, high-resolution 3D patterns can be manufactured by direct laser write (DLW) technology and 3D printing. This underscores the efficient initiation of free radical polymerization processes by the newly developed dyes under both artificial and natural light sources, presenting an avenue for energy-saving, and environmentally friendly polymerization conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Feng
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR7361, Mulhouse, F-68100, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, F-67081, France
| | - Yijun Zhang
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR7361, Mulhouse, F-68100, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, F-67081, France
| | - Fabrice Morlet-Savary
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR7361, Mulhouse, F-68100, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, F-67081, France
| | - Michael Schmitt
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR7361, Mulhouse, F-68100, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, F-67081, France
| | - Jing Zhang
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia, 5095, Australia
| | - Pu Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200050, P. R. China
| | - Frédéric Dumur
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR, UMR 7273, Marseille, F-13397, France
| | - Jacques Lalevée
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR7361, Mulhouse, F-68100, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, F-67081, France
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Trifan IS, Chibac-Scutaru AL, Melinte V, Coseri S. Photopolymerization Pattern of New Methacrylate Cellulose Acetate Derivatives. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:560. [PMID: 38399938 PMCID: PMC10892540 DOI: 10.3390/polym16040560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Polymeric photocrosslinked networks, of particular interest in the design of materials with targeted characteristics, can be easily prepared by grafting light-sensitive moieties, such as methacrylates, on polymeric chains and, after photochemical reactions, provide materials with multiple applications via photopolymerization. In this work, photopolymerizable urethane-methacrylate sequences were attached to free hydroxyl units of cellulose acetate chains in various proportions (functionalization degree from 5 to 100%) to study the properties of the resulting macromolecules and the influence of the cellulosic material structure on the double bond conversion degree. Additionally, to manipulate the properties of the photocured systems, the methacrylate-functionalized cellulose acetate derivatives were mixed with low molecular weight dimethacrylate derivatives (containing castor oil and polypropylene glycol flexible chains), and the influence of UV-curable composition on the photopolymerization parameters being studied. The achieved data reveal that the addition of dimethacrylate comonomers augmented the polymerization rates and conversion degrees, leading to polymer networks with various microstructures.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Violeta Melinte
- Polyaddition and Photochemistry Department, Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41 A Gr. Ghica Voda Alley, 700487 Iasi, Romania; (I.-S.T.); (A.L.C.-S.)
| | - Sergiu Coseri
- Polyaddition and Photochemistry Department, Petru Poni Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, 41 A Gr. Ghica Voda Alley, 700487 Iasi, Romania; (I.-S.T.); (A.L.C.-S.)
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Dumur F. Recent Advances in Monocomponent Visible Light Photoinitiating Systems Based on Sulfonium Salts. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4202. [PMID: 37959882 PMCID: PMC10649563 DOI: 10.3390/polym15214202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
During the last decades, multicomponent photoinitiating systems have been the focus of intense research efforts, especially for the design of visible light photoinitiating systems. Although highly reactive three-component and even four-component photoinitiating systems have been designed, the complexity to elaborate such mixtures has incited researchers to design monocomponent Type II photoinitiators. Using this approach, the photosensitizer and the radical/cation generator can be combined within a unique molecule, greatly simplifying the elaboration of the photocurable resins. In this field, sulfonium salts are remarkable photoinitiators but these structures lack absorption in the visible range. Over the years, various structural modifications have been carried out in order to redshift their absorptions in the visible region. In this work, an overview of the different sulfonium salts activable under visible light and reported to date is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Dumur
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR, UMR 7273, F-13397 Marseille, France
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Dumur F. Recent advances on water-soluble photoinitiators of polymerization. Eur Polym J 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2023.111942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
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Dumur F. Recent Advances on Photoinitiating Systems Designed for Solar Photocrosslinking Polymerization Reactions. Eur Polym J 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2023.111988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
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Recent Advances on Furan-Based Visible Light Photoinitiators of Polymerization. Catalysts 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/catal13030493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Photopolymerization is an active research field enabling to polymerize in greener conditions than that performed with traditional thermal polymerization. At present, a great deal of effort is devoted to developing visible light photoinitiating systems. Indeed, the traditional UV photoinitiating systems are currently the focus of numerous safety concerns so alternatives to UV light are being actively researched. However, visible light photons are less energetic than UV photons so the reactivity of the photoinitiating systems should be improved to address this issue. In this field, furane constitutes an interesting candidate for the design of photocatalysts of polymerization due to its low cost and its easy chemical modification. In this review, an overview concerning the design of furane-based photoinitiators is provided. Comparisons with reference systems are also established to demonstrate evidence of the interest of these photoinitiators in innovative structures.
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Recent Advances on Photobleachable Visible Light Photoinitiators of Polymerization. Eur Polym J 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2023.111874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Jeršovaitė J, Šarachovaitė U, Matulaitienė I, Niaura G, Baltriukienė D, Malinauskas M. Biocompatibility enhancement via post-processing of microporous scaffolds made by optical 3D printer. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1167753. [PMID: 37122855 PMCID: PMC10130666 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1167753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Providing a 3D environment that mimics the native extracellular matrix is becoming increasingly important for various applications such as cell function studies, regenerative medicine, and drug discovery. Among the most critical parameters to consider are the scaffold's complicated micro-scale geometry and material properties. Therefore, stereolithography based on photopolymerization is an emerging technique because of its ability to selectively form volumetric structures from liquid resin through localized polymerization reactions. However, one of the most important parameters of the scaffold is biocompatibility, which depends not only on the material but also on the exposure conditions and post-processing, which is currently underestimated. To investigate this systematically, microporous scaffolds with pore sizes of 0.05 mm3 corresponding to a porosity of 16,4% were fabricated using the stereolithography printer Asiga PICO2 39 UV from the widely used resins FormLabs Clear and Flexible. The use of various polymers is usually limited for cells because, after wet chemical development, the non-negligible amount of remaining monomers intertwined in the photopolymerized structures is significantly toxic to cells. Therefore, the aim of this research was to find the best method to remove monomers from the 3D scaffold by additional UV exposure. For this purpose, a Soxhlet extractor was used for the first time, and the monomers were immersed in different alcohols. A Raman microspectroscopy was also used to investigate whether different post-processing methods affect DC (cross-linking) to find out if this specifically affects the biocompatibility of the scaffolds. Finally, mesenchymal stem cells from rat dental pulp were examined to confirm the increased biocompatibility of the scaffolds and their ability to support cell differentiation into bone tissue cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jurga Jeršovaitė
- Laser Research Center, Faculty of Physics, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Ugnė Šarachovaitė
- Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Ieva Matulaitienė
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Gediminas Niaura
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Center for Physical Sciences and Technology, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Daiva Baltriukienė
- Institute of Biochemistry, Life Sciences Center, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Mangirdas Malinauskas
- Laser Research Center, Faculty of Physics, Vilnius University, Vilnius, Lithuania
- *Correspondence: Mangirdas Malinauskas,
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Naphthalene-Based Oxime Esters as Type I Photoinitiators for Free Radical Photopolymerization. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14235261. [PMID: 36501655 PMCID: PMC9735988 DOI: 10.3390/polym14235261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 11/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In order to discuss the polymerization effect from the substituted position and methoxy group of Type I photinitiators, a series of naphthalene-based oxime esters was designed and synthesized. Compared to the 2-naphthalene-substituted compound, the UV absorption region of the 1-naphthalene-based compound was greatly improved. In addition, the methoxy substitution exhibited longer absorption characteristics than did the methoxy-free one. The photochemical reaction behavior of these novel compounds was also studied by photolysis, cyclic voltammetry (CV), and electron spin resonance (ESR) experiments. Finally, the initiation abilities of naphthalene-based oxime esters toward trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA) monomer were conducted through the photo-DSC instrument under UV and a 405@nm LED lamp. Remarkedly, the naphthalene-based oxime ester (NA-3) that contains 1-naphthalene with o-methoxy substituent showed the rather red-shifted absorption region with the highest final conversion efficiency under UV (46%) and 405@nm LED (41%) lamp irradiation.
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Dumur F. Recent advances on benzylidene cyclopentanones as visible light photoinitiators of polymerization. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Salmi-Mani H, Aymes-Chodur C, Balthazar G, Atkins CJ, Terreros G, Barroca-Aubry N, Regeard C, Roger P. An eco-friendly process for the elaboration of poly(ethylene terephthalate) surfaces grafted with biobased network embedding silver nanoparticles with multiple antibacterial modes. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Borges FDS, Moraes FJH, Pereira Neto MA, d'Almeida JRM, Bento AC, Cella N. Photoacoustic spectroscopy applied in the monitoring of photocuring process in epoxy diacrylate resins: Positive effect. POLYM ADVAN TECHNOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pat.5864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francis de Souza Borges
- Instituto Politécnico, IPRJ Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, UERJ Nova Friburgo RJ Brazil
| | | | | | - José Roberto Moraes d'Almeida
- Departamento de Engenharia Química e de Materiais Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro, PUC‐Rio Rio de Janeiro RJ Brazil
| | | | - Norberto Cella
- Instituto Politécnico, IPRJ Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, UERJ Nova Friburgo RJ Brazil
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Kocaarslan A, Kaya K, Jockusch S, Yagci Y. Phenacyl Bromide as a Single‐Component Photoinitiator: Photoinduced Step‐Growth Polymerization of
N
‐Methylpyrrole and
N
‐Methylindole. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202208845. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.202208845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Azra Kocaarslan
- Department of Chemistry Istanbul Technical University Maslak, Istanbul 34469 Turkey
| | - Kerem Kaya
- Department of Chemistry Istanbul Technical University Maslak, Istanbul 34469 Turkey
| | - Steffen Jockusch
- Center for Photochemical Sciences Bowling Green State University Bowling Green OH 43403 USA
| | - Yusuf Yagci
- Department of Chemistry Istanbul Technical University Maslak, Istanbul 34469 Turkey
- Centre of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR) and Chemistry Department King Abdulaziz University 80203 Jeddah 21589 Saudi Arabia
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15
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Liguori A, Subramaniyan S, Yao JG, Hakkarainen M. Photocurable extended vanillin-based resin for mechanically and chemically recyclable, self-healable and digital light processing 3D printable thermosets. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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16
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Synthesis and free radical photopolymerization of one-component type II photoinitiator based on benzophenone segment. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2022.113900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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17
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Kocaarslan A, Kaya K, Jockusch S, Yagci Y. Phenacyl Bromide as a Single‐Component Photoinitiator: Photoinduced Step‐Growth Polymerization of
N
‐Methylpyrrole and
N
‐Methylindole. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202208845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Azra Kocaarslan
- Department of Chemistry Istanbul Technical University Maslak, Istanbul 34469 Turkey
| | - Kerem Kaya
- Department of Chemistry Istanbul Technical University Maslak, Istanbul 34469 Turkey
| | - Steffen Jockusch
- Center for Photochemical Sciences Bowling Green State University Bowling Green OH 43403 USA
| | - Yusuf Yagci
- Department of Chemistry Istanbul Technical University Maslak, Istanbul 34469 Turkey
- Centre of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR) and Chemistry Department King Abdulaziz University 80203 Jeddah 21589 Saudi Arabia
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Wu Y, Ke J, Dai C, Wang J, Huang C, Situ Y, Huang H. Large-molecular-weight acyldiphenylphosphine oxides as low-mobility type I photoinitiator for radical polymerization. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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20
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Liu Z, Dumur F. Recent Advances on Visible Light Coumarin-based Oxime Esters as Initiators of Polymerization. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Skotnicka A, Kabatc J. New BODIPY Dyes Based on Benzoxazole as Photosensitizers in Radical Polymerization of Acrylate Monomers. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15020662. [PMID: 35057379 PMCID: PMC8781298 DOI: 10.3390/ma15020662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
A series of 2-phenacylbenzoxazole difluoroboranes named BODIPY dyes (1-8) was designed and applied as photosensitizers (PS) for radical photopolymerization of acrylate monomer. The light absorption within the ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) range (λmax = 350-410 nm; εmax = 23,000-42,500 M-1cm-1), that is strongly influenced by the substituents on the C3 and C4 atoms of phenyl ring, matched the emission of the Omnicure S2000 light within 320-500 nm. The photosensitizer possess fluorescence quantum yield from about 0.005 to 0.99. The 2-phenacylbenzoxazole difluoroboranes, together with borate salt (Bor), iodonium salt (Iod) or pyridinium salt (Pyr) acting as co-initiators, can generate active radicals upon the irradiation with a High Pressure Mercury Lamp which initiates a high-performance UV-Vis light-induced radical polymerization at 320-500 nm. The polymers obtained are characterized by strong photoluminescence. It was found that the type of radical generator (co-initiator) has a significant effect on the kinetic of radical polymerization of acrylate monomer. Moreover, the chemical structure of the BODIPY dyes does not influence the photoinitiating ability of the photoinitiator. The concentration of the photoinitiating system affects the photoinitiating performance. These 2-phenacylbenzoxazole difluoroborane-based photoinitiating systems have promising applications in UV-Vis-light induced polymerization.
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Biobased Composites by Photoinduced Polymerization of Cardanol Methacrylate with Microfibrillated Cellulose. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15010339. [PMID: 35009485 PMCID: PMC8746221 DOI: 10.3390/ma15010339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Biobased monomers and green processes are key to producing sustainable materials. Cardanol, an aromatic compound obtained from cashew nut shells, may be conveniently functionalized, e.g., with epoxy or (meth)acrylate groups, to replace petroleum-based monomers. Photoinduced polymerization is recognized as a sustainable process, less energy intensive than thermal curing; however, cardanol-based UV-cured polymers have relatively low thermomechanical properties, making them mostly suitable as reactive diluents or in non-structural applications such as coatings. It is therefore convenient to combine them with biobased reinforcements, such as microfibrillated cellulose (MFC), to obtain composites with good mechanical properties. In this work a cardanol-based methacrylate monomer was photopolymerized in the presence of MFC to yield self-standing, flexible, and relatively transparent films with high thermal stability. The polymerization process was completed within few minutes even in the presence of filler, and the cellulosic filler was not affected by the photopolymerization process.
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Pierau L, Elian C, Akimoto J, Ito Y, Caillol S, Versace DL. Bio-sourced Monomers and Cationic Photopolymerization: The Green combination towards Eco-Friendly and Non-Toxic Materials. Prog Polym Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2022.101517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Technological Aspects of Highly Selective Synthesis of Allyloxyalcohols—New, Greener, Productive Methods. Catalysts 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/catal11121559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Allyl ethers bearing free hydroxyl groups of CH2=CH-CH-O-A-OH type (hydroxyalkyl allyl ethers, allyloxyalcohols) are valuable chemicals in many environmentally friendly industrial applications. The development of technologically attractive methods for their production is necessary. The two pathways (L-L PTC and non-catalytic solvent-free conditions) were optimized for the highly selective and yield synthesis of 4-allyloxybutan-1-ol. Improvements in the PTC method (50% NaOH(aq), the equimolar ratio of NaOH to diol, cyclohexane as solvent) with a new highly selective and effective PT catalyst, i.e., Me(n-Oct)3N+Br− (0.3 mol%), resulted in 88% yield and 98% selectivity of 4-allyloxybutan-1-ol with minimal formation of allyl chloride hydrolysis by-products (<1%). In turn, application of non-catalytic solvent-free conditions and the change in the key substrate with an excess of diol and use of solid NaOH solely led to a mono-O-allylation product with an excellent yield of 99% in a relatively short reaction time (3.5 h), with trace amounts of by-products (<0.1%). This sustainable method is perfectly suitable for the synthesis on a larger scale (3 moles of the key substrate) and for the full O-allylation process.
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Xu C, Wu X, Xiong Y, Li Z, Tang H. A class of azocarbazole‐based carboxylates: High‐efficiency ionic unimolecular photobase generators for thiol‐epoxy click polymerization under blue light. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Can Xu
- Engineering Research Center of Organosilicon Compounds and Materials, Ministry of Education, Sauvage Center for Molecular Sciences College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University Wuhan China
| | - Xiang Wu
- Engineering Research Center of Organosilicon Compounds and Materials, Ministry of Education, Sauvage Center for Molecular Sciences College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University Wuhan China
| | - Ying Xiong
- Engineering Research Center of Organosilicon Compounds and Materials, Ministry of Education, Sauvage Center for Molecular Sciences College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University Wuhan China
| | - Zhen Li
- Engineering Research Center of Organosilicon Compounds and Materials, Ministry of Education, Sauvage Center for Molecular Sciences College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University Wuhan China
| | - Hongding Tang
- Engineering Research Center of Organosilicon Compounds and Materials, Ministry of Education, Sauvage Center for Molecular Sciences College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University Wuhan China
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Light induced step-growth polymerization of Donor-Acceptor-Donor (DAD) type monomers based on thiophene – [1,2,5] Chalcogenazolo[3,4-f]-benzo [1,2,3] triazole – Thiophene. Eur Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Kaya K, Yagci Y. Contemporary Approaches for Conventional and Light‐Mediated Synthesis of Conjugated Heteroaromatic Polymers. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.202100334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kerem Kaya
- Chemistry Department Istanbul Technical University Maslak Istanbul 34469 Turkey
| | - Yusuf Yagci
- Chemistry Department Istanbul Technical University Maslak Istanbul 34469 Turkey
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Brahmi C, Benltifa M, Vaulot C, Michelin L, Dumur F, Gkaniatsou E, Sicard C, Airoudj A, Morlet‐Savary F, Bousselmi L, Lalevée J. New Hybrid Fe‐based MOFs/Polymer Composites for the Photodegradation of Organic Dyes. ChemistrySelect 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202102194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chaima Brahmi
- University of Haute-Alsace CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361 F-68100 Mulhouse France
- University of Strasbourg F-67081 Strasbourg France
- Laboratory of Wastewaters and Environment Center for Water Research and Technologies CERTE BP 273 Soliman 8020 Tunisia
- University of Carthage National Institute of Applied Sciences and Technology Tunis 1080 Tunisia
| | - Mahmoud Benltifa
- Laboratory of Wastewaters and Environment Center for Water Research and Technologies CERTE BP 273 Soliman 8020 Tunisia
| | - Cyril Vaulot
- University of Haute-Alsace CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361 F-68100 Mulhouse France
- University of Strasbourg F-67081 Strasbourg France
| | - Laure Michelin
- University of Haute-Alsace CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361 F-68100 Mulhouse France
- University of Strasbourg F-67081 Strasbourg France
| | - Frédéric Dumur
- Aix Marseille University CNRS, ICR, UMR7273 F-13397 Marseille France
| | - Effrosyni Gkaniatsou
- Lavoisier Institute of Versailles, UMR CNRS 8180 University of Paris Saclay University of Versailles St-Quentin en Yvelines 78035 Versailles Cedex France
| | - Clémence Sicard
- Lavoisier Institute of Versailles, UMR CNRS 8180 University of Paris Saclay University of Versailles St-Quentin en Yvelines 78035 Versailles Cedex France
| | - Aissam Airoudj
- University of Haute-Alsace CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361 F-68100 Mulhouse France
- University of Strasbourg F-67081 Strasbourg France
| | - Fabrice Morlet‐Savary
- University of Haute-Alsace CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361 F-68100 Mulhouse France
- University of Strasbourg F-67081 Strasbourg France
| | - Latifa Bousselmi
- Laboratory of Wastewaters and Environment Center for Water Research and Technologies CERTE BP 273 Soliman 8020 Tunisia
| | - Jacques Lalevée
- University of Haute-Alsace CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361 F-68100 Mulhouse France
- University of Strasbourg F-67081 Strasbourg France
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Guo X, Wang W, Wan D, Jin M. Substituted Stilbene-based D-π-A and A-π-A type oxime esters as photoinitiators for LED photopolymerization. Eur Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Qazzazie-Hauser A, Honnef K, Hanemann T. Crosslinking Behavior of UV-Cured Polyorganosilazane as Polymer-Derived Ceramic Precursor in Ambient and Nitrogen Atmosphere. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13152424. [PMID: 34372032 PMCID: PMC8347564 DOI: 10.3390/polym13152424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymer-derived ceramics (PDCs) based on silicon precursor represent an outstanding material for ceramic coatings thanks to their extraordinary versatile processibility. A promising example of a silicone precursor, polyorganosilazane (Durazane 1800), was studied concerning its crosslinking behavior by mixing it with three different photoinitiators, and curing it by two different UV-LED sources under both nitrogen and ambient atmosphere. The chemical conversion during polymerization and pyrolysis was monitored by FTIR spectroscopy. Pyrolysis was performed in a nitrogen atmosphere at 950 °C. The results demonstrate that polyorganosilazane can be cured by the energy-efficient UV-LED source at room temperature in nitrogen and ambient atmosphere. In nitrogen atmosphere, already common reactions for polysilazanes, including polyaddition of the vinyl group, dehydrogenation reactions, hydrosilylation, and transamination reaction, are responsible for crosslinking. Meanwhile, in ambient atmosphere, hydrolysis and polycondensation reactions occur next to the aforementioned reactions. In addition, the type of photoinitiator has an influence on the conversion of the reactive bonds and the chemical composition of the resulting ceramic. Furthermore, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was conducted in order to measure the ceramic yield of the cured samples as well as to study their decomposition. The ceramic yield was observed in the range of 72 to 78% depending on the composition and the curing atmosphere. The curing atmosphere significantly impacts the chemical composition of the resulting ceramics. Depending on the chosen atmosphere, either silicon carbonitride (SiCN) or a partially oxidized SiCN(O) can be produced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afnan Qazzazie-Hauser
- Laboratory for Materials Processing, Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany;
- Correspondence: (A.Q.-H.); (T.H.); Tel.: +49-761-203-7556 (A.Q.-H.)
| | - Kirsten Honnef
- Laboratory for Materials Processing, Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany;
| | - Thomas Hanemann
- Laboratory for Materials Processing, Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany;
- Institute for Applied Materials, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Correspondence: (A.Q.-H.); (T.H.); Tel.: +49-761-203-7556 (A.Q.-H.)
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Brahmi C, Benltifa M, Vaulot C, Michelin L, Dumur F, Millange F, Frigoli M, Airoudj A, Morlet-Savary F, Bousselmi L, Lalevée J. New hybrid MOF/polymer composites for the photodegradation of organic dyes. Eur Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Ao-Ieong WS, Chien ST, Jiang WC, Yet SF, Wang J. The Effect of Heat Treatment toward Glycerol-Based, Photocurable Polymeric Scaffold: Mechanical, Degradation and Biocompatibility. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13121960. [PMID: 34198515 PMCID: PMC8232022 DOI: 10.3390/polym13121960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Photocurable polymers have become increasingly important for their quick prototyping and high accuracy when used in three dimensional (3D) printing. However, some of the common photocurable polymers are known to be brittle, cytotoxic and present low impact resistance, all of which limit their applications in medicine. In this study, thermal treatment was studied for its effect and potential applications on the mechanical properties, degradability and biocompatibility of glycerol-based photocurable polymers, poly(glycerol sebacate) acrylate (PGSA). In addition to the slight increase in elongation at break, a two-fold increase in both Young's modulus and ultimate tensile strength were also observed after thermal treatment for the production of thermally treated PGSA (tPGSA). Moreover, the degradation rate of tPGSA significantly decreased due to the increase in crosslinking density in thermal treatment. The significant increase in cell viability and metabolic activity on both flat films and 3D-printed scaffolds via digital light processing-additive manufacturing (DLP-AM) demonstrated high in vitro biocompatibility of tPGSA. The histological studies and immune staining indicated that tPGSA elicited minimum immune responses. In addition, while many scaffolds suffer from instability through sterilization processes, it was proven that once glycerol-based polymers have been treated thermally, the influence of autoclaving the scaffolds were minimized. Therefore, thermal treatment is considered an effective method for the overall enhancement and stabilization of photocurable glycerol-based polymeric scaffolds in medicine-related applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wai-Sam Ao-Ieong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan; (W.-S.A.-I.); (S.-T.C.)
| | - Shin-Tian Chien
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan; (W.-S.A.-I.); (S.-T.C.)
| | - Wei-Cheng Jiang
- Institute of Cellular and System Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (W.-C.J.); (S.-F.Y.)
| | - Shaw-Fang Yet
- Institute of Cellular and System Medicine, National Health Research Institutes, Zhunan 35053, Taiwan; (W.-C.J.); (S.-F.Y.)
| | - Jane Wang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan; (W.-S.A.-I.); (S.-T.C.)
- Correspondence:
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Giacoletto N, Dumur F. Recent Advances in bis-Chalcone-Based Photoinitiators of Polymerization: From Mechanistic Investigations to Applications. Molecules 2021; 26:3192. [PMID: 34073491 PMCID: PMC8199041 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26113192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the past several decades, photopolymerization has become an active research field, and the ongoing efforts to develop new photoinitiating systems are supported by the different applications in which this polymerization technique is involved-including dentistry, 3D and 4D printing, adhesives, and laser writing. In the search for new structures, bis-chalcones that combine two chalcones' moieties within a unique structure were determined as being promising photosensitizers to initiate both the free-radical polymerization of acrylates and the cationic polymerization of epoxides. In this review, an overview of the different bis-chalcones reported to date is provided. Parallel to the mechanistic investigations aiming at elucidating the polymerization mechanisms, bis-chalcones-based photoinitiating systems were used for different applications, which are detailed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Frédéric Dumur
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, ICR UMR 7273, F-13397 Marseille, France
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Zhang X, Jiang Y, Ma Q, Hu S, Liao S. Metal-Free Cationic Polymerization of Vinyl Ethers with Strict Temporal Control by Employing an Organophotocatalyst. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:6357-6362. [PMID: 33900068 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c02500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
By virtue of spatiotemporal control over the chain propagating, visible-light-regulated organocatalytic photoredox cationic polymerization provides an appealing approach for the construction of metal-free, well-defined polymers and materials. However, so far, organic photocatalysts capable of mediated cationic polymerization of vinyl ethers are quite limited, and the photocontrol or efficiency is often eroded due to the difficulty in achieving a good activation-deactivation balance, which is greatly dependent on the redox property of the catalyst. Here, we introduce a new type of organic photocatalysts, bisphosphonium salts, which show high performance in the photoregulated reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer cationic polymerization of vinyl ethers and allow the synthesis of poly(vinyl ethers) with predictable molecular weights and narrow dispersities at low ppm catalyst loadings under visible light. In particular, the tunable redox potential and excellent stability endow the bisphosphonium salts strict temporal control, thus enabling the metal-free polymerization with a halt in a long dark period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xun Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Molecule Synthesis and Function Discovery (Fujian Province University), State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Yu Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Molecule Synthesis and Function Discovery (Fujian Province University), State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Qiang Ma
- Key Laboratory of Molecule Synthesis and Function Discovery (Fujian Province University), State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Siping Hu
- Key Laboratory of Molecule Synthesis and Function Discovery (Fujian Province University), State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China
| | - Saihu Liao
- Key Laboratory of Molecule Synthesis and Function Discovery (Fujian Province University), State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, College of Chemistry, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China.,Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
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Giacoletto N, Ibrahim-Ouali M, Dumur F. Recent advances on squaraine-based photoinitiators of polymerization. Eur Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Sprick E, Becht JM, Graff B, Salomon JP, Tigges T, Weber C, Lalevée J. New hydrogen donors for amine-free photoinitiating systems in dental materials. Dent Mater 2021; 37:382-390. [PMID: 33468405 DOI: 10.1016/j.dental.2020.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The two-component Camphorquinone (CQ)/aromatic amine system is well-established and clearly corresponds to the reference system used in all photopolymerizable dental adhesives and composites. However, this CQ/amine system still suffers from the presence of aromatic amines that can be referenced as toxic. Therefore, the aim of this work is to develop amine-free photoinitiating systems (PISs) for the polymerization of a representative dental methacrylate resins upon blue light irradiation. The proposed strategy is based on the in-silico design (by molecular modelling) of new hydrogen donors (amine-free) bearing a copolymerizable moiety (methacrylate functionality) to ensure their low migration/leaching properties from the synthesized polymer. The new proposed PISs are compared to the well-established CQ/amine system for the polymerization of different methacrylate blends upon exposure to a commercial blue dental LED centered at 477 nm. METHODS Molecular orbitals calculations are used to design new hydrogen donors exhibiting low C-H bond dissociation energies. Based on this in-silico design, the syntheses of new co-initiators are reported here for the first time. Real-time FTIR experiments are used to monitor the photopolymerization profiles. Color indexes measurements were also carried out to investigate the bleaching properties of the new proposed systems. RESULTS Three new co-initiators are proposed as alternatives to aromatic amines in dental materials in combination with camphorquinone. The performances of the new proposed amine-free PISs for the photopolymerization of thick (1.4 mm) samples of methacrylate upon exposure to a blue dental LED under air are excellent. Similar or better polymerization performances are obtained with the new proposed amine-free systems compared to those reached with the CQ/amine reference. Excellent bleaching properties are also found. The involved chemical mechanisms are investigated through molecular orbitals calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Sprick
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361, 68100 Mulhouse, France; Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean-Michel Becht
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361, 68100 Mulhouse, France; Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Bernadette Graff
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361, 68100 Mulhouse, France; Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Salomon
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361, 68100 Mulhouse, France; Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France; Faculty of Dentistry, University of Lorraine, France; Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, Oregon, USA
| | - Thomas Tigges
- Dentsply Sirona, De-Trey-Straβe 1, 78467 Konstanz, Germany
| | | | - Jacques Lalevée
- Université de Haute-Alsace, CNRS, IS2M UMR 7361, 68100 Mulhouse, France; Université de Strasbourg, 67000 Strasbourg, France.
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Alarcon RT, Lamb KJ, Bannach G, North M. Opportunities for the Use of Brazilian Biomass to Produce Renewable Chemicals and Materials. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:169-188. [PMID: 32975380 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202001726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This Review highlights the principal crops of Brazil and how their harvest waste can be used in the chemicals and materials industries. The Review covers various plants; with grains, fruits, trees and nuts all being discussed. Native and adopted plants are included and studies on using these plants as a source of chemicals and materials for industrial applications, polymer synthesis, medicinal use and in chemical research are discussed. The main aim of the Review is to highlight the principal Brazilian agricultural resources; such as sugarcane, oranges and soybean, as well as secondary resources, such as andiroba brazil nut, buriti and others, which should be explored further for scientific and technological applications. Furthermore, vegetable oils, carbohydrates (starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignocellulose and pectin), flavones and essential oils are described as well as their potential applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael T Alarcon
- School of Sciences, Department of Chemistry, UNESP- São Paulo State University, Bauru, 17033-260, SP, Brazil
| | - Katie J Lamb
- Green Chemistry Centre of Excellence, Department of Chemistry, The University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Gilbert Bannach
- School of Sciences, Department of Chemistry, UNESP- São Paulo State University, Bauru, 17033-260, SP, Brazil
| | - Michael North
- Green Chemistry Centre of Excellence, Department of Chemistry, The University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD, UK
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Challenges and Recent Developments of Photoflow-Reversible Deactivation Radical Polymerization (RDRP). CHINESE JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10118-021-2529-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Nanocellulose from Unbleached Hemp Fibers as a Filler for Biobased Photocured Composites with Epoxidized Cardanol. JOURNAL OF COMPOSITES SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/jcs5010011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Biobased composites were successfully prepared using raw materials derived from biomass waste, i.e., an epoxy resin obtained from cardanol and nanocellulose from unbleached hemp fibers. The composites were prepared by solvent exchange and an impregnation of the cellulosic mat with the resin, followed by photocuring. Quantitative conversion was obtained, despite the high amount of fibers (30 wt%) and their absorbance in the UV region of the light spectrum. X-ray diffraction confirmed that the crystalline structure of cellulose did not change during the impregnation and curing process. The cured composites were flexible, hydrophobic, water resistant, transparent with a yellow/brown color, and in the rubbery state at room temperature.
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