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Jimenéz-Calvo P, Naciri Y, Sobolewska A, Isaacs M, Zhang Y, Leforestier A, Degrouard J, Rouzière S, Goldmann C, Vantelon D, Hettler S, Zaluzec NJ, Arenal R, Launois P, Ghazzal MN, Paineau E. Ti-Modified Imogolite Nanotubes as Promising Photocatalyst 1D Nanostructures for H 2 Production. SMALL METHODS 2024; 8:e2301369. [PMID: 38085685 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202301369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2024]
Abstract
Imogolite nanotubes (INTs) are predicted as a unique 1D material with spatial separation of conduction and valence band edges but their large band gaps have inhibited their use as photocatalysts. The first step toward using these NTs in photocatalysis and exploiting the polarization-promoted charge separation across their walls is to reduce their band gap. Here, the modification of double-walled aluminogermanate INTs by incorporation of titanium into the NT walls is explored. The precursor ratio x = [Ti]/([Ge]+[Ti]) is modulated between 0 and 1. Structural and optical properties are determined at different scales and the photocatalytic performance is evaluated for H2 production. Although the incorporation of Ti atoms into the structure remains limited, the optimal condition is found around x = 0.4 for which the resulting NTs reveal a remarkable hydrogen production of ≈1500 µmol g-1 after 5 h for a noble metal-free photocatalyst, a 65-fold increase relative to a commercial TiO2-P25. This is correlated to a lowering of the recombination rate of photogenerated charge carriers for the most active structures. These results confirm the theoretical predictions regarding the potential of modified INTs as photoactive nanoreactors and pave the way for investigating and exploiting their polarization properties for energy applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Jimenéz-Calvo
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Yassine Naciri
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, 91405, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, UMR 8000, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Physique, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Anna Sobolewska
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, 91405, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, UMR 8000, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Physique, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Mark Isaacs
- HarwellXPS, Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Laboratories, Didcot, OX11 0FA, UK
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, 20 Gordon Street, London, WC1H 0AJ, UK
| | - Yu Zhang
- Central Laser Facility, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Didcot, 0X11 0QX, UK
| | - Amélie Leforestier
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Jéril Degrouard
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Stéphan Rouzière
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Claire Goldmann
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Delphine Vantelon
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, L'Orme des Merisiers, Gif-sur-Yvette, Cedex, 91192, France
| | - Simon Hettler
- Instituto de Nanociencia y Materiales de Aragon (INMA), CSIC-Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain. Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas (LMA), Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, E-50018, Spain
| | - Nestor J Zaluzec
- Argonne National Laboratory / Photon Science Directorate, Lemont, IL, 60439, USA
| | - Raul Arenal
- Instituto de Nanociencia y Materiales de Aragon (INMA), CSIC-Universidad de Zaragoza, Spain. Laboratorio de Microscopias Avanzadas (LMA), Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, E-50018, Spain
- Araid Foundation, Zaragoza, E-50018, Spain
| | - Pascale Launois
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Mohamed Nawfal Ghazzal
- Université Paris-Saclay, UMR 8000, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Physique, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Erwan Paineau
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay, 91405, France
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2
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Paineau E, Bourdelle F, Bhandary R, Truche L, Lorgeoux C, Bacia-Verloop M, Monet G, Rouzière S, Vantelon D, Briois V, Launois P. Nonclassical Growth Mechanism of Double-Walled Metal-Oxide Nanotubes Implying Transient Single-Walled Structures. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2308665. [PMID: 38229562 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202308665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
The formation of imogolite nanotubes is reported to be a kinetic process involving intermediate roof-tile nanostructures. Here, the structural evolution occurring during the synthesis of aluminogermanate double-walled imogolite nanotubes is in situ monitored, thanks to an instrumented autoclave allowing the control of the temperature, the continuous measurement of pH and pressure, and the regular sampling of gas and solution. Chemical analyses confirm the completion of the precursor's conversion with the release of CO2, ethanol, and dioxane as main side products. The combination of microscopic observations, infrared, and absorption spectroscopies with small and wide-angle X-ray scattering experiments unravel a unique growth mechanism implying transient single-walled nanotubes instead of the self-assembly of stacked proto-imogolite tiles. The growth formation of these transient nanotubes is followed at the molecular level by Quick-X-ray absoprtion specotrscopy experiments. Multivariate data analysis evidences that the near neighboring atomic environment of Ge evolves from monotonous to a more complex one as the reaction progresses. The following transformation into a double-walled nanotube takes place at a nearly constant mean radius, as demonstrated by the simulation of X-ray scattering diagrams. Overall, transient nanotubes appear to serve for the anchoring of a new wall, corresponding to a mechanism radically different from that proposed in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwan Paineau
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Franck Bourdelle
- GEC Laboratoire Géosciences & Environnement Cergy, CY Cergy Paris Université, Neuville-sur-Oise, 95000, France
| | - Rajesh Bhandary
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, 91405, France
- Macromolecular Chemistry, Division of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Natural Science II (Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics), Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg, von-Danckelmann-Platz 4, D-06120, Halle, Germany
| | - Laurent Truche
- CNRS, ISTerre, University Grenoble Alpes, CS 40700, Grenoble, 38058, France
| | - Catherine Lorgeoux
- GeoRessources, UMR 7359 CNRS, Université de Lorraine, Campus Aiguillettes, Vandœuvre-lès-Nancy, 54506, France
| | - Maria Bacia-Verloop
- Institut de Biologie Structurale, CEA, CNRS, Université de Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, 38027, France
| | - Geoffrey Monet
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, 91405, France
- Laboratoire de Physique de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, ENS, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, Paris, F-75005, France
| | - Stéphan Rouzière
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, 91405, France
| | - Delphine Vantelon
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, L'Orme des Merisiers, Gif-sur-Yvette, Cedex, 91192, France
| | - Valérie Briois
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, L'Orme des Merisiers, Gif-sur-Yvette, Cedex, 91192, France
| | - Pascale Launois
- CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, 91405, France
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3
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Paineau E, Teobaldi G, Jiménez‐Calvo P. Imogolite Nanotubes and Their Permanently Polarized Bifunctional Surfaces for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production. GLOBAL CHALLENGES (HOBOKEN, NJ) 2024; 8:2300255. [PMID: 38868604 PMCID: PMC11165560 DOI: 10.1002/gch2.202300255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
To date, imogolite nanotubes (INTs) have been primarily used for environmental applications such as dye and pollutant degradation. However, imogolite's well-defined porous structure and distinctive electro-optical properties have prompted interest in the system's potential for energy-relevant chemical reactions. The imogolite structure leads to a permanent intrawall polarization arising from the presence of bifunctional surfaces at the inner and outer tube walls. Density functional theory simulations suggest such bifunctionality to encompass also spatially separated band edges. Altogether, these elements make INTs appealing candidates for facilitating chemical conversion reactions. Despite their potential, the exploitation of imogolite's features for photocatalysis is at its infancy, thence relatively unexplored. This perspective overviews the basic physical-chemical and optoelectronical properties of imogolite nanotubes, emphasizing their role as wide bandgap insulator. Imogolite nanotubes have multifaceted properties that could lead to beneficial outcomes in energy-related applications. This work illustrates two case studies demonstrating a step-forward on photocatalytic hydrogen production achieved through atomic doping or metal co-catalyst. INTs exhibit potential in energy conversion and storage, due to their ability to accommodate functions such as enhancing charge separation and influencing the chemical potentials of interacting species. Yet, tapping into potential for energy-relevant application needs further experimental research, computational, and theoretical analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwan Paineau
- CNRSLaboratoire de Physique des SolidesUniversité Paris‐SaclayOrsay91405France
| | - Gilberto Teobaldi
- Scientific Computing DepartmentSTFC UKRIRutherford Appleton LaboratoryHarwell CampusDidcotOX11 0QXUK
| | - Pablo Jiménez‐Calvo
- Chair of Thin Film MaterialsIZNFFriedrich‐Alexander‐ Universität Erlangen‐NürnbergCauerstraße 391058ErlangenGermany
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4
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Adams FT, Bauer M, Levard C, Michel FM. Multivariate regression analysis of factors regulating the formation of synthetic aluminosilicate nanoparticles. NANOSCALE 2024. [PMID: 38381522 DOI: 10.1039/d4nr00473f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
Interest is growing in nanoparticles made of earth abundant materials, like alumino(silicate) minerals. Their applications are expanding to include catalysis, carbon sequestration reactions, and medical applications. It remains unclear, however, what factors control their formation and abundance during laboratory synthesis or on a larger industrial scale. This work investigates the complex system of physicochemical conditions that influence the formation of nanosized alumino(silicate) minerals. Samples were synthesized and analyzed by powder X-ray diffraction, in situ and ex situ small angle X-ray scattering, and transmission electron microscopy. Regression analyses combined with linear combination fitting of powder diffraction patterns was used to model the influence of different synthesis conditions including concentration, hydrolysis ratio and rate, and Al : Si elemental ratio on the particle size of the initial precipitate and on the phase abundances of the final products. These models show that hydrolysis ratio has the strongest control on the overall phase composition, while the starting reagent concentration also plays a vital role. For imogolite nanotubes, we determine that increasing concentration, and relatively high or low hydrolysis limit nanotube production. A strong relationship is also observed between the distribution of nanostructured phases and the size of precursor particles. The confidences were >99% for all linear regression models and explained up to 85% of the data variance in the case of imogolite. Additionally, the models consistently predict resulting data from other experimental studies. These results demonstrate the use of an approach to understand complex chemical systems with competing influences and provide insight into the formation of several nanosized alumino(silicate) phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faisal T Adams
- Department of Geosciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - McNeill Bauer
- Department of Geosciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
| | - Clément Levard
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Coll France, CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence, France
| | - F Marc Michel
- Department of Geosciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA.
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5
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Modified sulfonated polyphenylsulfone proton exchange membrane with enhanced fuel cell performance: A review. J IND ENG CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2022.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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6
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Martin-Gassin G, Paineau E, Launois P, Gassin PM. Water Organization around Inorganic Nanotubes in Suspension Probed by Polarization-Resolved Second Harmonic Scattering. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:6883-6888. [PMID: 35862242 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c01392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Imogolite nanotube (INT) is a fascinating one-dimensional (1D) material that can be synthesized in the liquid phase. Its behavior in solution is crucial for many applications and depends on the organization of water at the liquid-wall interface. We study here this water organization by using the nonlinear optical technique of polarization-resolved second harmonic scattering (SHS). A microscopic model is proposed to interpret the origin of the coherent SHS signal recovered in this 1D colloidal system. This work demonstrates that the SHS technique is able to probe the shell of water molecules oriented around the nanotubes. Water organization results from the electric field induced by the nanotube walls, and it is strongly dependent on the ionic strength of the suspension.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erwan Paineau
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Pascale Launois
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, 91405 Orsay, France
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7
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Mineral-Supported Photocatalysts: A Review of Materials, Mechanisms and Environmental Applications. ENERGIES 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/en15155607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Although they are of significant importance for environmental applications, the industrialization of photocatalytic techniques still faces many difficulties, and the most urgent concern is cost control. Natural minerals possess abundant chemical inertia and cost-efficiency, which is suitable for hybridizing with various effective photocatalysts. The use of natural minerals in photocatalytic systems can not only significantly decrease the pure photocatalyst dosage but can also produce a favorable synergistic effect between photocatalyst and mineral substrate. This review article discusses the current progress regarding the use of various mineral classes in photocatalytic applications. Owing to their unique structures, large surface area, and negatively charged surface, silicate minerals could enhance the adsorption capacity, reduce particle aggregation, and promote photogenerated electron-hole pair separation for hybrid photocatalysts. Moreover, controlling the morphology and structure properties of these materials could have a great influence on their light-harvesting ability and photocatalytic activity. Composed of silica and alumina or magnesia, some silicate minerals possess unique orderly organized porous or layered structures, which are proper templates to modify the photocatalyst framework. The non-silicate minerals (referred to carbonate and carbon-based minerals, sulfate, and sulfide minerals and other special minerals) can function not only as catalyst supports but also as photocatalysts after special modification due to their unique chemical formula and impurities. The dye-sensitized minerals, as another natural mineral application in photocatalysis, are proved to be superior photocatalysts for hydrogen evolution and wastewater treatment. This work aims to provide a complete research overview of the mineral-supported photocatalysts and summarizes the common synergistic effects between different mineral substrates and photocatalysts as well as to inspire more possibilities for natural mineral application in photocatalysis.
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9
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Son BT, Long NV, Nhat Hang NT. Fly ash-, foundry sand-, clay-, and pumice-based metal oxide nanocomposites as green photocatalysts. RSC Adv 2021; 11:30805-30826. [PMID: 35498918 PMCID: PMC9041310 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra05647f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Metal oxides possess exceptional physicochemical properties which make them ideal materials for critical photocatalytic applications. However, of major interest, their photocatalytic applications are hampered by several drawbacks, consisting of prompt charge recombination of charge carriers, low surface area, inactive under visible light, and inefficient as well as expensive post-treatment recovery. The immobilization of metal oxide semiconductors on materials possessing high binding strength eliminates the impractical and costly recovery of spent catalysts in large-scale operations. Notably, the synthesis of green material (ash, clay, foundry sand, and pumice)-based metal oxides could provide a synergistic effect of the superior adsorption capacity of supporting materials and the photocatalytic activity of metal oxides. This phenomenon significantly improves the overall degradation efficiency of emerging pollutants. Inspired by the novel concept of "treating waste with waste", this contribution highlights recent advances in the utilization of natural material (clay mineral and pumice)- and waste material (ash and foundry sand)-based metal oxide nanocomposites for photodegradation of various pollutants. First, principles, mechanism, challenges towards using metal oxide as photocatalysts, and immobilization techniques are systematically summarized. Then, sources, classifications, properties, and chemical composition of green materials are briefly described. Recent advances in the utilization of green materials-based metal oxide composites for the photodegradation of various pollutants are highlighted. Finally, in the further development of green materials-derived photocatalysts, we underlined the current gaps that are worthy of deeper research in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bui Thanh Son
- Nanotechnology, Thu Dau Mot University Binh Duong Province Vietnam
| | - Nguyen Viet Long
- Nanotechnology, Thu Dau Mot University Binh Duong Province Vietnam
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10
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Cavallaro G, Lazzara G, Pignon F, Chiappisi L, Paineau E. Effect of Polymer Length on the Adsorption onto Aluminogermanate Imogolite Nanotubes. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:9858-9864. [PMID: 34369144 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c01549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study evidences the adsorption of model nonionic polymers onto aluminogermanate imogolite nanotubes, attractive porous nanofillers with potential molecular loading and release applications. We resolve the underlying mechanisms between nanotubes and polyethylene glycols with different molecular weights by means of nanoisothermal titration calorimetry. The analysis of the results provides a direct thermodynamic characterization, allowing us to propose a detailed description of the energetics involved in the formation of polymer/imogolite complexes. The affinity toward the nanotube surface is enthalpy-driven and strongly depends on the polymer chain length, which significantly affects the polymer configuration and the flow properties of the resulting complexes, probed by small-angle neutron scattering and rheology, respectively. These findings open new avenues for the rational design of these hybrid mixtures for advanced applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Cavallaro
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, pad. 17, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Lazzara
- Department of Physics and Chemistry, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, pad. 17, Palermo 90128, Italy
| | - Frédéric Pignon
- Laboratoire de Rhéologie et Procédés, Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP (Institut of Engineering Univ. Grenoble-Alpes), Grenoble F-38000, France
| | | | - Erwan Paineau
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, Orsay 91405, France
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11
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Hamon C, Beaudoin E, Launois P, Paineau E. Doping Liquid Crystals of Colloidal Inorganic Nanotubes by Additive-Free Metal Nanoparticles. J Phys Chem Lett 2021; 12:5052-5058. [PMID: 34019414 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c01311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Doping liquid-crystal phases with nanoparticles is a fast-growing field with potential breakthroughs due to the combination of the properties brought by the two components. One of the main challenges remains the long-term stability of the hybrid system, requiring complex functionalization of the nanoparticles at the expense of their self-assembly properties. Here we demonstrate the successful synthesis of additive-free noble-metal nanoparticles at the surface of charged inorganic nanotubes. Transmission electron microscopy and UV-visible spectroscopy confirm the stabilization of metallic nanoparticles on nanotubes. Meanwhile, the spontaneous formation of liquid-crystals phases induced by the nanotubes is observed, even after surface modification with metallic nanoparticles. Small-angle X-ray scattering experiments reveal that the average interparticle distance in the resulting hybrids can be easily modulated by controlling electrostatic interactions. As a proof-of-concept, we demonstrate the effectiveness of our method for the preparation of homogeneous transparent hybrid films with a high degree of alignment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cyrille Hamon
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, 91405, Orsay, France
| | - Emmanuel Beaudoin
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, 91405, Orsay, France
| | - Pascale Launois
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, 91405, Orsay, France
| | - Erwan Paineau
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, 91405, Orsay, France
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12
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Moore J, Paineau E, Launois P, Shaffer MSP. Continuous Binder-Free Fibers of Pure Imogolite Nanotubes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:17940-17947. [PMID: 33830735 PMCID: PMC8153543 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c00971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Imogolite nanotubes (INTs) display a range of useful properties and provide an ideal material system to study the assembly of nanomaterials into macroscopic fibers. A method of wet spinning pure, binder-free imogolite fibers has been developed using double-walled germanium imogolite nanotubes. The nanotube aspect ratio can be controlled during the initial synthesis and is critical to the spinning process. Fibers made from short nanotubes (<100 nm) have very low gel strengths, while dopes with longer nanotubes (500-1000 nm) are readily spinnable. The tensile behavior of the resulting imogolite nanotube fibers is strongly influenced by relative humidity (RH), with a modulus of 30 GPa at 10% RH compared to 2.8 GPa at 85% RH, as well as a change in failure mode. This result highlights the importance of inter-nanotube interactions in such assemblies and provides a useful strategy for further exploration. Interestingly, in the absence of a matrix phase, a degree of misorientation appears to improve load transfer between the individual INTs within the porous fiber, likely due to an increase in the number of interparticle contacts. Imogolite nanotubes are an appealing analogue to other nanotube fiber systems, and it is hoped that learnings from this system can also be used to improve carbon nanotube fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph
F. Moore
- Department
of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.
| | - Erwan Paineau
- Université
Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Pascale Launois
- Université
Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, 91405 Orsay, France
| | - Milo S. P. Shaffer
- Department
of Materials, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.
- Department
of Chemistry, Imperial College London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, U.K.
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13
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Pignié MC, Shcherbakov V, Charpentier T, Moskura M, Carteret C, Denisov S, Mostafavi M, Thill A, Le Caër S. Confined water radiolysis in aluminosilicate nanotubes: the importance of charge separation effects. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:3092-3105. [PMID: 33522536 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr08948f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Imogolite nanotubes are potentially promising co-photocatalysts because they are predicted to have curvature-induced, efficient electron-hole pair separation. This prediction has however not yet been experimentally proven. Here, we investigated the behavior upon irradiation of these inorganic nanotubes as a function of their water content to understand the fate of the generated electrons and holes. Two types of aluminosilicate nanotubes were studied: one was hydrophilic on its external and internal surfaces (IMO-OH) and the other had a hydrophobic internal cavity due to Si-CH3 bonds (IMO-CH3), with the external surface remaining hydrophilic. Picosecond pulse radiolysis experiments demonstrated that the electrons are efficiently driven outward. For imogolite samples with very few external water molecules (around 1% of the total mass), quasi-free electrons were formed. They were able to attach to a water molecule, generating a water radical anion, which ultimately led to dihydrogen. When more external water molecules were present, solvated electrons, precursors of dihydrogen, were formed. In contrast, holes moved towards the internal surface of the tubes. They mainly led to the formation of dihydrogen and of methane in irradiated IMO-CH3. The attachment of the quasi-free electron to water was a very efficient process and accounted for the high dihydrogen production at low relative humidity values. When the water content increased, electron solvation dominated over attachment to water molecules. Electron solvation led to dihydrogen production, albeit to a lesser extent than quasi-free electrons. Our experiments demonstrated the spontaneous curvature-induced charge separation in these inorganic nanotubes, making them very interesting potential co-photocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Claire Pignié
- NIMBE, UMR 3685 CEA, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, CEA Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France.
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14
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Shikinaka K, Koike H, Tominaga Y. Phase Behavior, Ionic Conductivity, and Current-Voltage Response of Imogolite Gel Swelled in Ionic Liquid. CHEM LETT 2021. [DOI: 10.1246/cl.200711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Shikinaka
- Research Institute for Chemical Process Technology, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, 4-2-1 Nigatake, Miyagino-ku, Sendai, Miyagi 983-8551, Japan
| | - Honami Koike
- Graduate School of Bio-Applications and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Naka-cho, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
| | - Yoichi Tominaga
- Graduate School of Bio-Applications and Systems Engineering, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, 2-24-16 Naka-cho, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
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15
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Termination Effects in Aluminosilicate and Aluminogermanate Imogolite Nanotubes: A Density Functional Theory Study. CRYSTALS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst10111051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We investigate termination effects in aluminosilicate (AlSi) and aluminogermanate (AlGe) imogolite nanotubes (NTs) by means of semi-local and range-corrected hybrid Density Functional Theory (DFT) simulations. Following screening and identification of the smallest finite model capable of accommodating full relaxation of the NT terminations around an otherwise geometrically and electrostatically unperturbed core region, we quantify and discuss the effects of physical truncation on the structure, relative energy, electrostatics and electronic properties of differently terminated, finite-size models of the NTs. In addition to composition-dependent changes in the valence (VB) and conduction band (CB) edges and resultant band gap (BG), the DFT simulations uncover longitudinal band bending and separation in the finite AlSi and AlGe models. Depending on the given termination of the NTs, such longitudinal effects manifest in conjunction with the radial band separation typical of fully periodic AlSi and AlGe NTs. The strong composition dependence of the longitudinal and radial band bending in AlSi and AlGe NTs suggests different mechanisms for the generation, relaxation and separation of photo-generated holes in AlSi and AlGe NTs, inviting further research in the untapped potential of imogolite compositional and structural flexibility for photo-catalytic applications.
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Paineau E, Rouzière S, Monet G, Diogo CC, Morfin I, Launois P. Role of initial precursors on the liquid-crystalline phase behavior of synthetic aluminogermanate imogolite nanotubes. J Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 580:275-285. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2020.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Goh PS, Wong KC, Ismail AF. Nanocomposite Membranes for Liquid and Gas Separations from the Perspective of Nanostructure Dimensions. MEMBRANES 2020; 10:E297. [PMID: 33096685 PMCID: PMC7589584 DOI: 10.3390/membranes10100297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Revised: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
One of the critical aspects in the design of nanocomposite membrane is the selection of a well-matched pair of nanomaterials and a polymer matrix that suits their intended application. By making use of the fascinating flexibility of nanoscale materials, the functionalities of the resultant nanocomposite membranes can be tailored. The unique features demonstrated by nanomaterials are closely related to their dimensions, hence a greater attention is deserved for this critical aspect. Recognizing the impressive research efforts devoted to fine-tuning the nanocomposite membranes for a broad range of applications including gas and liquid separation, this review intends to discuss the selection criteria of nanostructured materials from the perspective of their dimensions for the production of high-performing nanocomposite membranes. Based on their dimension classifications, an overview of the characteristics of nanomaterials used for the development of nanocomposite membranes is presented. The advantages and roles of these nanomaterials in advancing the performance of the resultant nanocomposite membranes for gas and liquid separation are reviewed. By highlighting the importance of dimensions of nanomaterials that account for their intriguing structural and physical properties, the potential of these nanomaterials in the development of nanocomposite membranes can be fully harnessed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Sean Goh
- Advanced Membrane Technology Research Centre (AMTEC), School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Malaysia; (K.C.W.); (A.F.I.)
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Cation Doping Approach for Nanotubular Hydrosilicates Curvature Control and Related Applications. CRYSTALS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst10080654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The past two decades have been marked by an increased interest in the synthesis and the properties of geoinspired hydrosilicate nanoscrolls and nanotubes. The present review considers three main representatives of this group: halloysite, imogolite and chrysotile. These hydrosilicates have the ability of spontaneous curling (scrolling) due to a number of crystal structure features, including the size and chemical composition differences between the sheets, (or the void in the gibbsite sheet and SiO2 tetrahedron, in the case of imogolite). Mineral nanoscrolls and nanotubes consist of the most abundant elements, like magnesium, aluminium and silicon, accompanied by uncontrollable amounts of impurities (other elements and phases), which hinder their high technology applications. The development of a synthetic approach makes it possible to not only to overcome the purity issues, but also to enhance the chemical composition of the nanotubular particles by controllable cation doping. The first part of the review covers some principles of the cation doping approach and proposes joint criteria for the semiquantitative prediction of morphological changes that occur. The second part focuses on some doping-related properties and applications, such as morphological control, uptake and release, magnetic and mechanical properties, and catalysis.
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Lee WJ, Paineau E, Anthony DB, Gao Y, Leese HS, Rouzière S, Launois P, Shaffer MSP. Inorganic Nanotube Mesophases Enable Strong Self-Healing Fibers. ACS NANO 2020; 14:5570-5580. [PMID: 32255336 PMCID: PMC7304920 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.9b09873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The assembly of one-dimensional nanomaterials into macroscopic fibers can improve mechanical as well as multifunctional performance. Double-walled aluminogermanate imogolite nanotubes are geo-inspired analogues of carbon nanotubes, synthesized at low temperature, with complementary properties. Here, continuous imogolite-based fibers are wet-spun within a poly(vinyl alcohol) matrix. The lyotropic liquid crystallinity of the system produces highly aligned fibers with tensile stiffness and strength up to 24.1 GPa (14.1 N tex-1) and 0.8 GPa (0.46 N tex-1), respectively. Significant enhancements over the pure polymer control are quantitatively attributed to both matrix refinement and direct nanoscale reinforcement, by fitting an analytical model. Most intriguingly, imogolite-based fibers show a high degree of healability via evaporation-induced self-assembly, recovering up to 44% and 19% of the original fiber tensile stiffness and strength, respectively. This recovery at high absolute strength highlights a general strategy for the development of high-performance healable fibers relevant to composite structures and other applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won Jun Lee
- Department of Materials,
Department of Chemistry, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, U.K. SW7 2AZ
| | - Erwan Paineau
- Laboratoire
de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, Bâtiment 510, Orsay, Île-de-France FR 91405, France
| | - David Benbow Anthony
- Department of Materials,
Department of Chemistry, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, U.K. SW7 2AZ
| | - Yulin Gao
- Department of Materials,
Department of Chemistry, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, U.K. SW7 2AZ
| | - Hannah Siobhan Leese
- Department of Materials,
Department of Chemistry, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, U.K. SW7 2AZ
| | - Stéphan Rouzière
- Laboratoire
de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, Bâtiment 510, Orsay, Île-de-France FR 91405, France
| | - Pascale Launois
- Laboratoire
de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Université Paris Sud, Université Paris Saclay, Bâtiment 510, Orsay, Île-de-France FR 91405, France
| | - Milo Sebastian Peter Shaffer
- Department of Materials,
Department of Chemistry, South Kensington Campus, Imperial College London, London, U.K. SW7 2AZ
- E-mail:
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Li L, Takada A, Ma W, Fujikawa S, Ariyoshi M, Igata K, Okajima M, Kaneko T, Takahara A. Structure and Properties of Hybrid Film Fabricated by Spin-Assisted Layer-by-Layer Assembly of Sacran and Imogolite Nanotubes. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2020; 36:1718-1726. [PMID: 32040331 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b03626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A free-standing (biomacomolecule/synthetic inorganic nanotubes) hybrid film was fabricated through an alternative layer-by-layer (LBL) assembly of sacran and imogolite nanotubes. Sacran is a natural polysaccharide extracted from the cyanobacterium Aphanothece sacrum, while imogolite is a natural tubular aluminosilicate clay found in volcano ash. The hybrid film thickness increased linearly with the number of the bilayers, because of the interaction between the negatively charged surface of sacran and the positively charged surface of imogolite. UV-vis spectroscopy indicated that the LBL film exhibited good transparency. The surface morphology of the LBL film was smooth in the micrometer scale; many imogolite nanotubes were adsorbed onto the sacran layer, while no imogolite clusters were observed. Furthermore, the structure, stability, gas permeability, and mechanical properties of the LBL films were investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Li
- Graduate School of Engineering , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
| | - Akihiko Takada
- Institute for Materials Chemistry and Engineering , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
| | - Wei Ma
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
| | - Shigenori Fujikawa
- Graduate School of Engineering , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
| | - Miho Ariyoshi
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
| | - Kosuke Igata
- Graduate School of Engineering , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
| | - Maiko Okajima
- School of Materials Science , Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (JAIST), 1-1 Asahidai , Nomi , Ishikawa 923-1292 , Japan
| | - Tatsuo Kaneko
- School of Materials Science , Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (JAIST), 1-1 Asahidai , Nomi , Ishikawa 923-1292 , Japan
| | - Atsushi Takahara
- Graduate School of Engineering , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
- Institute for Materials Chemistry and Engineering , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) , Kyushu University , 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku , Fukuoka 819-0395 , Japan
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Metal Chalcogenides Based Heterojunctions and Novel Nanostructures for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution. Catalysts 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/catal10010089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The photo-conversion efficiency is a key issue in the development of new photocatalysts for solar light driven water splitting applications. In recent years, different engineering strategies have been proposed to improve the photogeneration and the lifetime of charge carriers in nanostructured photocatalysts. In particular, the rational design of heterojunctions composites to obtain peculiar physico-chemical properties has achieved more efficient charge carriers formation and separation in comparison to their individual component materials. In this review, the recent progress of sulfide-based heterojunctions and novel nanostructures such as core-shell structure, periodical structure, and hollow cylinders is summarized. Some new perspectives of opportunities and challenges in fabricating high-performance photocatalysts are also discussed.
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Paineau E, Monet G, Peyre V, Goldmann C, Rouzière S, Launois P. Colloidal Stability of Imogolite Nanotube Dispersions: A Phase Diagram Study. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2019; 35:12451-12459. [PMID: 31475826 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b01922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In this article, we revisit the colloidal stability of clay imogolite nanotubes by studying the effect of electrostatic interactions on geo-inspired synthetic nanotubes in aqueous dispersions. The nanotubes in question are double-walled aluminogermanate imogolite nanotubes (Ge-DWINTs) with a well-defined diameter (4.3 nm) and with an aspect ratio around 4. Surface charge properties are assessed by electrophoretic measurements, revealing that the outer surfaces of Ge-DWINT are positively charged up to high pH values. A series of Ge-DWINT dispersions have been prepared by osmotic stress to control both the ionic strength of the dispersion and the volume fraction in nanotubes. Optical observations coupled to small and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS/WAXS) experiments allow us to unravel different nanotube organizations. At low ionic strength (IS < 10-2 mol L-1), Ge-DWINTs are fully dispersed in water while they form an arrested gel phase above a given concentration threshold, which shifts toward higher volume fraction with increasing ionic strength. The swelling law, derived from the evolution of the mean intertube distance as a function of the nanotube concentration, evidences a transition from isotropic swelling at low volume fractions to one-dimensional swelling at higher volume fractions. These results show that the colloidal stability of Ge-DWINT is driven by repulsive interactions for ionic strengths lower than 10-2 mol L-1. By contrast, higher salt concentrations lead to attractive interactions that destabilize the colloid suspension, inducing nanotube coagulation into larger structures that settle over time or form opaque gels. Detailed simulations of the WAXS diagram reveal that aggregates are mainly formed by an isotropic distribution of small bundles (less than four nanotubes) in which the nanotubes organized themselves in parallel orientation. Altogether, these measurements allow us to give the first overview of the phase diagram of colloidal dispersions based on geo-inspired imogolite-like nanotubes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwan Paineau
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay , Bâtiment 510 , 91405 Orsay , France
| | - Geoffrey Monet
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay , Bâtiment 510 , 91405 Orsay , France
| | - Véronique Peyre
- PHENIX, UMR CNRS 8234, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC , Univ. Paris 06 , 75005 Paris , France
| | - Claire Goldmann
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay , Bâtiment 510 , 91405 Orsay , France
| | - Stéphan Rouzière
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay , Bâtiment 510 , 91405 Orsay , France
| | - Pascale Launois
- Laboratoire de Physique des Solides, UMR CNRS 8502, Univ. Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay , Bâtiment 510 , 91405 Orsay , France
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Serra M, Arenal R, Tenne R. An overview of the recent advances in inorganic nanotubes. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:8073-8090. [PMID: 30994692 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr01880h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Advanced nanomaterials play a prominent role in nanoscience and nanotechnology developments, opening new frontiers in these areas. Among these nanomaterials, due to their unique characteristics and enhanced chemical and physical properties, inorganic nanotubes have been considered one of the most interesting nanostructures. In recent years, important progress has been achieved in the production and study of these nanomaterials, including boron nitride, transition metal dichalcogenide nanotubular structures, misfit-based nanotubes and other hybrid/doped nanotubular objects. This review is devoted to the in-depth analysis of recent studies on the synthesis, atomic structures, properties and applications of inorganic nanotubes and related nanostructures. Particular attention is paid to the growth mechanism of these nanomaterials. This is a crucial point for the challenges ahead related to the mass production of high-quality defect-free nanotubes for a variety of applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Serra
- Department of Materials and Interfaces, Weizmann Institute, Herzl Street 234, 76100, Rehovot, Israel.
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Poli E, Elliott JD, Chulkov SK, Watkins MB, Teobaldi G. The Role of Cation-Vacancies for the Electronic and Optical Properties of Aluminosilicate Imogolite Nanotubes: A Non-local, Linear-Response TDDFT Study. Front Chem 2019; 7:210. [PMID: 31024896 PMCID: PMC6469436 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a combined non-local (PBE-TC-LRC) Density Functional Theory (DFT) and linear-response time-dependent DFT (LR-TDDFT) study of the structural, electronic, and optical properties of the cation-vacancy based defects in aluminosilicate (AlSi) imogolite nanotubes (Imo-NTs) that have been recently proposed on the basis of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) experiments. Following numerical determination of the smallest AlSi Imo-NT model capable of accommodating the defect-induced relaxation with negligible finite-size errors, we analyse the defect-induced structural deformations in the NTs and ensuing changes in the NTs' electronic structure. The NMR-derived defects are found to introduce both shallow and deep occupied states in the pristine NTs' band gap (BG). These BG states are found to be highly localized at the defect site. No empty defect-state is modeled for any of the considered systems. LR-TDDFT simulation of the defects reveal increased low-energy optical absorbance for all but one defects, with the appearance of optically active excitations at energies lower than for the defect-free NT. These results enable interpretation of the low-energy tail in the experimental UV-vis spectra for AlSi NTs as being due to the defects. Finally, the PBE-TC-LRC-approximated exciton binding energy for the defects' optical transitions is found to be substantially lower (up to 0.8 eV) than for the pristine defect-free NT's excitations (1.1 eV).
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiliano Poli
- The Abdus Salam Center for Theoretical Physics, Condensed Matter and Statistical Physics Department, Trieste, Italy
| | - Joshua D. Elliott
- Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Galileo Galilei”, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy
- CNR-IOM DEMOCRITOS, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-Istituto Officina dei Materiali, Trieste, Italy
- School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Sergey K. Chulkov
- School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew B. Watkins
- School of Mathematics and Physics, University of Lincoln, Brayford Pool, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Gilberto Teobaldi
- Daresbury Laboratory, Scientific Computing Department, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Warrington, United Kingdom
- Beijing Computational Science Research Centre, Beijing, China
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy and Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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