Life Cycle Analysis of Lithium-Ion Batteries for Automotive Applications

Urgent needs for second life using and recycling design of wasted electric vehicles (EVs) lithium-ion battery: a scientometric analysis

Currently, lithium-ion batteries are increasingly widely used and generate waste due to the rapid development of the EV industry. Meanwhile, how to reuse "second life" and recycle "extracting of valuable metals" of these wasted EVBs has been a hot research topic. The 4810 relevant articles from SCI and SSCI Scopus databases were obtained. Scientometric analysis about second life using and recycling methodologies of wasted EVBs was conducted by VOSviewer, Pajek, and Netdraw. According to analytical results, the research of second life using and recycling mythologies has been growing and the expected achievement will continue to increase. China, Germany, the USA, Italy, and the UK are the most active countries in this field. Tsinghua University in China, "Fraunhofer ISI, Karlsruhe" in Germany, and "Polytechnic di Torino" in Italy are the most productive single and collaborative institutions. The journals SAE technical papers and World Electric Vehicle Journal have the highest publication and citations than other journals. Chinese author "Li Y" has the highest number of 36 publications, and his papers were cited 589 times by other authors. By analyzing the co-occurrence and keywords, energy analysis, second life (stationary using, small industry), and treatment methods, (hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgical, electrochemical, bio-metallurgical) were the hot research topics. The S-curve from the article indicates hydrometallurgical and bio-metallurgical methods are attached with great potential in the near future. Further, different treatment methodologies are observed especially advanced techniques in hydrometallurgical, and spent medium bioleaching techniques in bio-metallurgical are good, economically cheap, has low CO2 emission, environmentally friendly, and has high recovery rate. Finally, this research provides information on second life use and top recycling methodology opportunities for future research direction for researchers and decision-makers who are interested in this research.

Life cycle assessment of secondary use and physical recycling of lithium-ion batteries retired from electric vehicles in China

With the rapid development of the global new energy vehicle industry, how to minimize the environmental impact of the recovery has become a common concern and urgent concern. China is a major production and consumption market for electric vehicles, there are no specific and extensive resource and environmental assessment system for batteries. In this paper, the retired Electric vehicles lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) was the research object, and a specific analysis of the recycling treatment and gradual use stages of power batteries were based on life cycle assessment. Different battery assessment scenarios were established according to the development of battery recycling in China. The results showed that the secondary use has the optimal performance compared to the full-component physical, pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgy recycling. The results showed that direct recycling has a GWP of 0.037 kg-CO2 eq·kg LIB-1, which is lower than others. Secondary use of LIB accounts for the most emission reductions with Global warming (GWP) as 12.134 kg-CO2 eq·kg LIB-1. The secondary use has the greatest impact on the assessment results, especially in dynamic scenarios. Through a comprehensive comparison of different recycling technologies, the secondary use, increasing the recycling rate, reducing resource, energy consumption and pollution emissions.

Life cycle assessment of a LiFePO4 cylindrical battery

Reduction of the environmental impact, energy efficiency and optimization of material resources are basic aspects in the design and sizing of a battery. The objective of this study was to identify and characterize the environmental impact associated with the life cycle of a 7.47 Wh 18,650 cylindrical single-cell LiFePO4 battery. Life cycle assessment (LCA), the SimaPro 9.1 software package, the Ecoinvent 3.5 database and the ReCiPe 2016 impact assessment method were used for this purpose. Environmental impacts were modelled and quantified using the dual midpoint-endpoint approach and the "cradle-to-gate" model. The results showed the electrodes to be the battery components with the highest environmental impact (41.36% of the total), with the negative electrode being the most unfavourable (29.8 mPt). The ageing, calibration and testing process (53.97 mPt) accounts for 97.21% of the total impact associated with the production process's consumption of energy, and 41.20% of the total impact associated with the battery. This new knowledge will allow a more detailed view of the environmental impact of cylindrical cell LiFePO4 batteries, favouring the identification of critical points to enhance their sustainable production.

Cleaning up while Changing Gears: The Role of Battery Design, Fossil Fuel Power Plants, and Vehicle Policy for Reducing Emissions in the Transition to Electric Vehicles

Plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) can reduce air emissions when charged with clean power, but prior work estimated that in 2010, PEVs produced 2 to 3 times the consequential air emission externalities of gasoline vehicles in PJM (the largest US regional transmission operator, serving 65 million people) due largely to increased generation from coal-fired power plants to charge the vehicles. We investigate how this situation has changed since 2010, where we are now, and what the largest levers are for reducing PEV consequential life cycle emission externalities in the near future. We estimate that PEV emission externalities have dropped by 17% to 18% in PJM as natural gas replaced coal, but they will remain comparable to gasoline vehicle externalities in base case trajectories through at least 2035. Increased wind and solar power capacity is critical to achieving deep decarbonization in the long run, but through 2035 we estimate that it will primarily shift which fossil generators operate on the margin at times when PEVs charge and can even increase consequential PEV charging emissions in the near term. We find that the largest levers for reducing PEV emissions over the next decade are (1) shifting away from nickel-based batteries to lithium iron phosphate, (2) reducing emissions from fossil generators, and (3) revising vehicle fleet emission standards. While our numerical estimates are regionally specific, key findings apply to most power systems today, in which renewable generators typically produce as much output as possible, regardless of the load, while dispatchable fossil fuel generators respond to the changes in load.

Life cycle assessment of experimental Al-ion batteries for energy storage applications

In this work, the analysis of environmental performance and its coherence with circular economy priorities of different variants of Al-ion battery construction was performed. Al-ion-based batteries can be considered as one of the future alternatives for currently used Li-ion-based cells when the shortage of lithium or cobalt becomes a challenge. All tested batteries were constructed with Al anodes, polypropylene foil separator, polyvinylidene fluoride + N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (PVDF+NMP) binder, Al collector and laminated Al foil pouch cell. WO3, Norit and carbon from potato starch (CPS) were used as a cathode material. Saturated solutions of AlCl3 dissolved in diethylene glycol dimethyl ether (DEG) and deep eutectic solvents (DES) originating from bacterial polymer polyhydroxyalkanoate were used as electrolytes. The ReCiPe impact assessment method was used in this analysis. The indicator in this study was ReCiPe Endpoint (H) V1.07 referring to Europe. SimaPro 9.4 software with Ecoinvent 3.8 inventory database were used for all calculations. The analysis included experimental production and assembly of batteries and their end-of-life processing. Based on the performed analysis it was found that the overall weighted impact of each single construction variant of an Al-ion battery is dominated by the use of electricity, no matter which variant is considered since it is related to the electricity mix in Poland and its high dependence on fossil fuels. Overall environmental impact is the smallest for CPS DEG battery, while Norit DEG and CPS DEG variants have slightly higher impacts. The share of end-of-life processing in overall environmental impacts of all analysed variants was found low compared to the Li-ion batteries. This observation indicates the Al-ion batteries as a promising direction of alternative electrochemical devices for energy storage systems while end-of-life processing and circular solution are concerned.

Life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: a systematic review of literature

This study addresses the pressing need to evaluate the life cycle assessment (LCA) of electric vehicles (EVs) in comparison to traditional vehicles, amid growing environmental concerns and the quest for sustainable transportation alternatives. Through a systematic four-stage literature review, it strives to provide essential insights into the environmental impact, energy consumption, and resource utilization associated with EVs, thereby informing well-informed decisions in the transition to more sustainable transportation systems. The study's findings underscore a compelling environmental advantage of EVs. They emit a staggering 97% less CO2 equivalent emissions when compared to petrol vehicles, and a significant 70% less compared to their diesel counterparts, rendering them a crucial instrument in the battle against climate change. These environmental benefits are intricately linked to the adoption of clean energy sources and advanced battery technology. Furthermore, the study highlights the potential for additional emissions reduction through the extension of EV lifespans achieved by recycling and advanced battery technologies, with Li-ion batteries enjoying a second life as secondary storage systems. However, challenges remain, most notably the scarcity of rare earth materials essential for EV technology. The study's policy recommendations advocate for a swift shift towards clean energy sources in both EV production and usage, substantial investments in advanced battery technology, and robust support for recycling initiatives. Addressing the rare earth material shortage is paramount to the sustained growth and viability of EVs, facilitating a greener and more sustainable future in the realm of transportation.

A multi-dimensional indicator for material and energy circularity: Proof-of-concept of exentropy in Li-ion battery recycling

Recycling processes are an important stage in the raw material life cycle, as it enables the transition from a linear economy into a circular one. However, the currently available indicators of productivity in recycling technologies respond to the needs of a linear economy. In this work, a parameter called "exentropy" is proposed, offering the possibility to simultaneously account for mass preservation and the energy efficiency of transformative stages. As a proof-of-concept of this indicator, the analysis of a lithium-ion battery recycling process under various concentrations of a leaching reagent (i.e., 0.1M, 1M, and 2M) is presented. It is shown that, when the energy or mass dimensions are considered independently, the processes considered optimal may have conflicting characteristics. In contrast, the multi-dimensional analysis identified the process option offering the best compromise for both material and energy preservation, an aspect closer to the goals of the circular economy.

Estimating the environmental impacts of global lithium-ion battery supply chain: A temporal, geographical, and technological perspective

A sustainable low-carbon transition via electric vehicles will require a comprehensive understanding of lithium-ion batteries' global supply chain environmental impacts. Here, we analyze the cradle-to-gate energy use and greenhouse gas emissions of current and future nickel-manganese-cobalt and lithium-iron-phosphate battery technologies. We consider existing battery supply chains and future electricity grid decarbonization prospects for countries involved in material mining and battery production. Currently, around two-thirds of the total global emissions associated with battery production are highly concentrated in three countries as follows: China (45%), Indonesia (13%), and Australia (9%). On a unit basis, projected electricity grid decarbonization could reduce emissions of future battery production by up to 38% by 2050. An aggressive electric vehicle uptake scenario could result in cumulative emissions of 8.1 GtCO2eq by 2050 due to the manufacturing of nickel-based chemistries. However, a switch to lithium iron phosphate-based chemistry could enable emission savings of about 1.5 GtCO2eq. Secondary materials, via recycling, can help reduce primary supply requirements and alleviate the environmental burdens associated with the extraction and processing of materials from primary sources, where direct recycling offers the lowest impacts, followed by hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical, reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 61, 51, and 17%, respectively. This study can inform global and regional clean energy strategies to boost technology innovations, decarbonize the electricity grid, and optimize the global supply chain toward a net-zero future.

Cradle-to-Gate and Use-Phase Carbon Footprint of a Commercial Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Battery

Increased use of vehicle electrification to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has led to the need for an accurate and comprehensive assessment of the carbon footprint of traction batteries. Unfortunately, there are few lifecycle assessments (LCAs) of commercial lithium-ion batteries available in the literature, and those that are available focus on the cradle-to-gate stage, often with little or no consideration of the use phase. To address this shortfall, we report both cradle-to-gate and use-phase GHG emissions for the 2020 Model Year Ford Explorer plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) NMC622 battery. Using primary industry data for battery design and manufacturing, cradle-to-gate emissions are estimated to be 1.38 t CO2e (101 kg CO2e/kWh), with 78% from materials and parts production and 22% from cell, module, and pack manufacturing. Using mass-induced energy consumptions of 0.6 and 1.6 kWh/(100 km 100 kg) for charge-depleting and -sustaining modes, respectively, the mass-induced use-phase emission of the battery is estimated to be 1.04 t CO2e. We show that battery emissions during the cradle-to-gate and use phases are comparable and that both phases need to be considered. A holistic and harmonized LCA approach that includes battery use is required to reduce carbon footprint uncertainties and guide future battery designs.

Will reshoring manufacturing of advanced electric vehicle battery support renewable energy transition and climate targets?

Recent global logistics and geopolitical challenges draw attention to the potential raw material shortages for electric vehicle (EV) batteries. Here, we analyze the long-term energy and sustainability prospects to ensure a secure and resilient midstream and downstream value chain for the U.S. EV battery market amid uncertain market expansion and evolving battery technologies. With current battery technologies, reshoring and ally-shoring the midstream and downstream EV battery manufacturing will reduce the carbon footprint by 15% and energy use by 5 to 7%. While next-generation cobalt-free battery technologies will achieve up to 27% carbon emission reduction, transitioning to 54% less carbon-intensive blade lithium iron phosphate may diminish the mitigation benefits of supply chain restructuring. Our findings underscore the importance of adopting nickel from secondary sources and nickel-rich ores. However, the advantages of restructuring the U.S. EV battery supply chain depend on projected battery technology advancements.

Life-cycle economic and environmental impacts of municipal solid waste reverse logistics in residential areas

The economic and environmental impacts of the reverse logistics (RL) process (including drop-off, collection and transportation [C&T]) of the waste disposal chain are becoming increasingly prominent with the increasing generation of municipal solid waste (MSW) and promotion of MSW classification. Quantitative evaluation of this process from economic and environmental perspectives is of great significance for MSW management. This study focused on the financial capital, materials, and energy consumption in the RL process in Xi an City, China. Based on field investigation, the magnitude of pollutant emissions from MSW C&T vehicles over their life cycle was predicted using the GREET software and total RL life-cycle cost and life-cycle assessment were analyzed. The results showed that the finical costs of RL were $46.35-$49.03 per ton of food waste and $62.52-$88.84 per ton of residual waste; the environmental impacts caused by the RL process accounted for 79.24%-96.00% and 20.87%-68.55% of the entire food waste and residual waste management chains, respectively. Labor costs were the biggest financial expenditure and the fuel cycle of C&T vehicles caused the majority of the environmental impacts. Source-separated waste management scenarios represented more environmental benefits but poorer economic positions. In the future, improving MSW source-separation accuracy, replacing diesel C&T vehicles with electric ones, and optimizing the RL system could reduce the environmental and economic impacts of the entire waste management system.

High concentration from resources to market heightens risk for power lithium-ion battery supply chains globally

Global low-carbon contracts, along with the energy and environmental crises, have encouraged the rapid development of the power battery industry. As the current first choice for power batteries, lithium-ion batteries have overwhelming advantages. However, the explosive growth of the demand for power lithium-ion batteries will likely cause crises such as resource shortages and supply-demand imbalances. This study adopts qualitative and quantitative research methods to comprehensively evaluate the power lithium-ion battery supply and demand risks by analyzing the global material flow of these batteries. The results show that the processes from resources to market of the power lithium-ion battery industry are highly concentrated with growing trends. The proportion of the top three power lithium-ion battery-producing countries grew from 71.79% in 2016 to 92.22% in 2020, increasing by 28%. The top three power lithium-ion battery-demand countries accounted for 83.07% of the demand in 2016 and 88.16% in 2020. The increasing concentration increases the severity of the supply risk. The results also imply that different processes are concentrated within different countries or regions, and the segmentation puts the development of the power lithium-ion battery industry at significant risk. It is urgent to address this situation so that this severe risk can be ameliorated.

An Integrated Model to Conduct Multi-Criteria Technology Assessments: The Case of Electric Vehicle Batteries

The large-scale adoption of low-carbon technologies can result in trade-offs between technical, socio-economic, and environmental aspects. To assess such trade-offs, discipline-specific models typically used in isolation need to be integrated to support decisions. Integrated modeling approaches, however, usually remain at the conceptual level, and operationalization efforts are lacking. Here, we propose an integrated model and framework to guide the assessment and engineering of technical, socio-economic, and environmental aspects of low-carbon technologies. The framework was tested with a case study of design strategies aimed to improve the material sustainability of electric vehicle batteries. The integrated model assesses the trade-offs between the costs, emissions, material criticality, and energy density of 20,736 unique material design options. The results show clear conflicts between energy density and the other indicators: i.e., energy density is reduced by more than 20% when the costs, emissions, or material criticality objectives are optimized. Finding optimal battery designs that balance between these objectives remains difficult but is essential to establishing a sustainable battery system. The results exemplify how the integrated model can be used as a decision support tool for researchers, companies, and policy makers to optimize low-carbon technology designs from various perspectives.

Graphite Flows in the U.S.: Insights into a Key Ingredient of Energy Transition

Demand for graphite will grow with expanding use of lithium-ion batteries in the United States. Much graphite is imported, raising supply chain risks. It is therefore imperative to characterize graphite's sources and sinks. Accordingly, we present the first material flow analysis for natural and synthetic graphite in the U.S. The analysis (for 2018) begins with processed graphite trade and includes graphite production, graphite product trade, manufacturing of end products, end product use, and waste management. It considers 11 end-use applications for graphite, two waste management stages, and three recycling pathways. In 2018, 354 thousand tonnes (kt) of processed graphite were consumed in the U.S., including 60 kt natural graphite and 294 kt synthetic graphite. 145 kt of graphite were traded. Refractories and foundries consumed 56% of natural graphite; 42% of synthetic graphite went into making graphite electrodes. Batteries accounted for 10 and 5% of natural and synthetic graphite consumption, respectively; 78% of total graphite used dissipated into the environment; 22% reached the waste disposal stage of which 71% was landfilled and 29% was recycled; and 59 kt of graphite accumulated in in-use stocks. Recycling more graphite and producing graphite from lignin would favorably influence today's supply chain.

Autogeddon or autoheaven: Environmental and social effects of the automotive industry from launch to present

The automotive industry is one of the most significant and increasing sources of pollution worldwide. Previous studies examining its impacts focus on the post-1950 era as data available before this period is scarce. This study carefully reconstructs six datasets from the early 20th century to 2019 for the UK: annual number of motor cars, road lengths, road fatalities, NOx and CO emissions, and fuel consumption. Interpolation was prudently used to fill gaps in the data sets. Results highlight changing health, social and environmental effects throughout the growth of the automotive sector. Ratios of fatalities to cars indicate social ingraining of the car and rapid response to legislation. Significant emissions resulted from the early industry. Successful remediation of emissions occurred in the late 20th century. All variables studied were interrelated, but expansion of road networks particularly contributed to a range of both positive and (unintended) negative consequences. World War 2 appears to have been a landmark for the automotive industry, producing capacity for mass production, personal mobility and research and therefore a struggle between impacts and social policies. We have demonstrated that technological developments and regulatory interventions relating to the motor industry, alongside events that have catalysed societal change, have been crucial in terms of subsequently providing benefits to society whilst also acting to mitigate (but not prevent) the adverse and frequently devastating impacts of motor vehicles on human health and the environment. A periodic, regular, overarching, independent review (~ every 5 years) of the collective positive and negative impacts of the motor vehicle industry and appropriate interventions are essential to maintain and improve social benefits and public and environmental health, as well as supporting delivery of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals by 2030 and beyond.

Assessing the European Electric-Mobility Transition: Emissions from Electric Vehicle Manufacturing and Use in Relation to the EU Greenhouse Gas Emission Targets

The European Union (EU) has set a 37.5% GHG reduction target in 2030 for the mobility sector, relative to 1990 levels. This requires increasing the share of zero-emission passenger vehicles, mainly in the form of electric vehicles (EVs). This study calculates future GHG emissions related to passenger vehicle manufacturing and use based on stated policy goals of EU Member States for EV promotion. Under these policies, by 2040 the stock of EVs would be about 73 times larger than those of 2020, contributing to a cumulative in-use emission reduction of 2.0 gigatons CO₂-eq. Nevertheless, this stated EV adoption will not be sufficiently fast to reach the EU's GHG reduction targets, and some of the GHG environmental burdens may be shifted to the EV battery manufacturing countries. To achieve the 2030 reduction targets, the EU as a whole needs to accelerate the phase-out of internal combustion engine vehicles and transit to e-mobility at the pace of the most ambitious Member States, such that EVs can comprise at least 55% of the EU passenger vehicle fleet in 2030. An accelerated decarbonization of the electricity system will become the most critical prerequisite for minimizing GHG emissions from both EV manufacturing and in-use stages.

Building a Digital Twin Simulator Checking the Effectiveness of TEG-ICE Integration in Reducing Fuel Consumption Using Spatiotemporal Thermal Filming Handled by Neural Network Technique

Scholars seek to recycle wasted energy to produce electricity by integrating thermoelectric generators (TEGs) with internal combustion engines (ICE), which rely on the electrical conductivity, β, of the thermal conductor strips. The TEG legs are alloyed from iron, aluminum and copper in a strip shape with specific characteristics that guarantee maximum thermo-electric transformation, which has fluctuated between a uniform, Gaussian, and exponential distribution according to the structure of the alloy. The ICE exhaust and intake gates were chosen as the TEG sides. The digital simulator twin model checks the integration efficiency through two sequential stages, beginning with recording the causes of thermal conductivity failure via filming and extracting their data by neural network procedures in the feed of the second stage, which reveal that the cracks are a major obstacle in reducing the TEG-generated power. Therefore, the interest of the second stage is predicting the cracks’ positions, Pi,j, and their intensity, QP, based on the ant colony algorithm which recruits imaging data (STTF-NN-ACO) to install the thermal conductors far away from the cracks’ positions. The proposed metaheuristic (STTF-NN-ACO) verification shows superiority in the prediction over [Mat-ACO] by 8.2% and boosts the TEGs’ efficiency by 32.21%. Moreover, increasing the total generated power by 12.15% and working hours of TEG by 20.39%, reflects reduced fuel consumption by up to 19.63%.

Removal of car battery heavy metals from wastewater by activated carbons: a brief review

Spent automobile batteries are one of the most significant secondary sources of harmful heavy metals for the environment. After being incorporated into the aquatic ecosystems, these metals disseminate to various plants, microorganisms, and the human body and cause multiple adverse effects. Activated carbons (ACs) have long been used as an effective adsorbent for different heavy metals in wastewater treatment processes. Although numerous research works have been published to date on this topic, they are scattered in the literature. In this review, we have assembled these works and provided an extensive overview of the application of ACs for treating spent car battery heavy metals (CBHMs) from aquatic systems. The preparation of ACs from different precursor materials, their application in the adsorption of CBHMs, the adsorption mechanism, kinetics, adsorption isotherms and various parameters that may affect the adsorption processes have been discussed in detail. A brief comparative analysis of the adsorption performances of ACs prepared from different precursor materials is also provided. Finally, recommendations for future research works are also offered.

Life Cycle Assessment of a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Unit Made of Cylindrical Cells

Saving energy is a fundamental topic considering the growing energy requirements with respect to energy availability. Many studies have been devoted to this question, and life cycle assessment (LCA) is increasingly acquiring importance in several fields as an effective way to evaluate the energy demand and the emissions associated with products’ life cycles. In this work, an LCA analysis of an existent lithium-ion battery pack (BP) unit is presented with the aim to increase awareness about its consumption and offering alternative production solutions that are less energy intensive. Exploiting the literature data about cradle-to-grave and cradle-to-gate investigations, and after establishing reasonable approximations, the main BP sub-elements were considered for this study, such as the plastic cells support, the Li-ion cells brick, the PCBs for a battery management system (BMS), the liquid-based battery thermal management system (BTMS) and the BP container. For each of these components, the impacts of the extraction, processing, assembly, and transportation of raw materials are estimated and the partial and total values of the energy demand (ED) and global warming potential (GWP) are determined. The final interpretation of the results allows one to understand the important role played by LCA evaluations and presents other possible ways of reducing the energy consumption and CO2 emissions.

Comparative life cycle assessment of LFP and NCM batteries including the secondary use and different recycling technologies

Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries and lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) batteries are the most widely used power lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric vehicles (EVs) currently. The future trend is to reuse LIBs retired from EVs for other applications, such as energy storage systems (ESS). However, the environmental performance of LIBs during the entire life cycle, from the cradle to the grave, has not been extensively discussed. In this study, life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to quantify and compare the environmental impacts of LFP and NCM batteries. Apart from the phases of production, the first use in EVs, and recycling, the repurposing of retired LIBs and their secondary use in the ESS were also included in the system boundary. Also, the environmental impacts of various recycling processes were evaluated. The LCA results suggested that the NCM battery had better comprehensive environmental performance than the LFP one but shorter service life over the whole life cycle. In China, the first and secondary use phases contributed most to the environmental impacts with electricity mostly generated from fossil fuels. The LIB production phase was relevant to all assessed impact categories and contributed more than 50% to Abiotic Depletion Potential (ADP elements) particularly. The environmental loads could be mitigated through the recovery of metals and other materials. And, hydrometallurgy was recommended for recycling waste LIBs by better environmental advantages than pyrometallurgy and direct physical recycling. Sensitivity analysis revealed that by optimizing the charge-discharge efficiency of LIBs, particularly LFP batteries, all environmental burdens could be considerably decreased. Therefore, improving the electrochemical performance of LIBs and increasing the use proportion of clean energy were crucial to reduce the environmental impacts over their entire life cycle.

A review of the life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: Considering the influence of batteries

The automotive industry is currently on the verge of electrical transition, and the environmental performance of electric vehicles (EVs) is of great concern. To assess the environmental performance of EVs scientifically and accurately, we reviewed the life cycle environmental impacts of EVs and compared them with those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Considering that the battery is the core component of EVs, we further summarise the environmental impacts of battery production, use, secondary utilisation, recycling, and remanufacturing. The results showed that the environmental impact of EVs in the production phase is higher than that of ICEVs due to battery manufacturing. EVs in the use phase obtained a better overall image than ICEVs, although this largely depended on the share of clean energy generation. In the recycling phase, repurposing and remanufacturing retired batteries are helpful in improving the environmental benefits of EVs. Over the entire life cycle, EVs have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and fossil energy consumption; however, they have higher impacts than ICEVs in terms of metal and mineral consumption and human toxicity potential. In summary, optimising the power structure, upgrading battery technology, and improving the recycling efficiency are of great significance for the large-scale promotion of EVs, closed-loop production of batteries, and sustainable development of the resources, environment, and economy.

Reversible Redox Chemistry of Anionic Imidazole-2-thione-Fused 1,4-Dihydro-1,4-diphosphinines

Anionic 1,4-dihydro-1,4-diphosphinines were synthesized from tricyclic 1,4-diphosphinines and isolated as blue powdery salts M[2a–2c]. Reaction of solutions of these monoanions with iodomethane led to P-methylated compounds 3a–3c. An oxidation/reduction cycle was examined, starting from solutions of K[2a] via P–P coupled product 4a and back to K[2a], and the recyclability and redox chemistry of this cycle were confirmed by experimental and simulated cyclic voltammetry analysis, which is proposed as a potential 2-electron cathode for rechargeable cells. TD-DFT studies were used to examine species that might be involved in the process.

Synthesis of a set of stable P-anionic 1,4-dihydro-1,4-diphosphinines is described, including an oxidation/reduction cycle of one example, confirmed by experimental and simulated cyclic voltammetry analysis as well as detailed DFT studies. The results indicate that main group phosphorus compounds have unexplored potential for the development of new cathode materials.

An overview of global power lithium-ion batteries and associated critical metal recycling

The rapid development of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in emerging markets is pouring huge reserves into, and triggering broad interest in the battery sector, as the popularity of electric vehicles (EVs)is driving the explosive growth of EV LIBs. These mounting demands are posing severe challenges to the supply of raw materials for LIBs and producing an enormous quantity of spent LIBs, bringing difficulties in the areas of resource allocation and environmental protection. This review article presents an overview of the global situation of power LIBs, aiming at different methods to treat spent power LIBs and their associated metals. We provide a critical review of power LIB supply chain, industrial development, waste treatment strategies and recycling, etc. Power LIBs will form the largest proportion of the battery industry in the next decade. The analysis of the sustainable supply of critical metal materials is emphasized, as recycling metal materials can alleviate the tight supply chain of power LIBs. The existing significant recycling practices that have been recognized as economically beneficial can promote metal closed-loop recycling. Scientific thinking needs to innovate sustainable and cost-effective recycling technologies to protect the environment because of the chemicals contained in power LIBs.

Enabling Intelligent Recovery of Critical Materials from Li-Ion Battery through Direct Recycling Process with Internet-of-Things

The rapid market expansion of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) leads to concerns over the appropriate disposal of hazardous battery waste and the sustainability in the supply of critical materials for LIB production. Technologies and strategies to extend the life of LIBs and reuse the materials have long been sought. Direct recycling is a more effective recycling approach than existing ones with respect to cost, energy consumption, and emissions. This approach has become increasingly more feasible due to digitalization and the adoption of the Internet-of-Things (IoT). To address the question of how IoT could enhance direct recycling of LIBs, we first highlight the importance of direct recycling in tackling the challenges in the supply chain of LIB and discuss the characteristics and application of IoT technologies, which could enhance direct recycling. Finally, we share our perspective on a paradigm where IoT could be integrated into the direct recycling process of LIBs to enhance the efficiency, intelligence, and effectiveness of the recycling process.

Regional Emissions Analysis of Light-Duty Battery Electric Vehicles

Light-duty battery electric vehicles (BEVs) can reduce both greenhouse gas (GHG) and criteria air pollutant (CAPs) emissions, when compared to gasoline vehicles. However, research has found that while today’s BEVs typically reduce GHGs, they can increase certain CAPs, though with significant regional variability based on the electric grid mix. In addition, the environmental performance of electric and gasoline vehicles is not static, as key factors driving emissions have undergone significant changes recently and are expected to continue to evolve. In this study, we perform a cradle-to-grave life cycle analysis using state-level generation mix and vehicle operation emission data. We generated state-level emission factors using a projection from 2020 to 2050 for three light-duty vehicle types. We found that BEVs currently provide GHG benefits in nearly every state, with the median state’s benefit being between approximately 50% to 60% lower than gasoline counterparts. However, gasoline vehicles currently have lower total NOx, urban NOx, total PM2.5, and urban PM2.5 in 33%; 15%; 70%; and 10% of states, respectively. BEV emissions will decrease in 2050 due to a cleaner grid, but the relative benefits when compared to gasoline vehicles do not change significantly, as gasoline vehicles are also improving over this time.

Second life and recycling: Energy and environmental sustainability perspectives for high-performance lithium-ion batteries

Second life and recycling of retired automotive lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have drawn growing attention, as large volumes of LIBs will retire in the coming decade. Here, we illustrate how battery chemistry, use, and recycling can influence the energy and environmental sustainability of LIBs. We find that LIBs with higher specific energy show better life cycle environmental performances, but their environmental benefits from second life application are less pronounced. Direct cathode recycling is found to be the most effective in reducing life cycle environmental impacts, while hydrometallurgical recycling provides limited sustainability benefits for high-performance LIBs. Battery design with less aluminum and alternative anode materials, such as silicon-based anode, could enable more sustainable LIB recycling. Compared to directly recycling LIBs after their electric vehicle use, carbon footprint and energy use of LIBs recycled after their second life can be reduced by 8 to 17% and 2 to 6%, respectively.

Life Cycle Assessment of Autonomous Electric Field Tractors in Swedish Agriculture

There is an increased interest for battery electric vehicles in multiple sectors, including agriculture. The potential for lowered environmental impact is one of the key factors, but there exists a knowledge gap between the environmental impact of on-road vehicles and agricultural work machinery. In this study, a life cycle assessment was performed on two smaller, self-driving battery electric tractors, and the results were compared to those of a conventional tractor for eleven midpoint characterisation factors, three damage categories and one weighted single score. The results showed that compared to the conventional tractor, the battery electric tractor had a higher impact in all categories during the production phase, with battery production being a majority contributor. However, over the entire life cycle, it had a lower impact in the weighted single score (−72%) and all three damage categories; human health (−74%), ecosystem impact (−47%) and resource scarcity (−67%). The global warming potential over the life cycle of the battery electric tractor was 102 kg CO2eq.ha−1 y−1 compared to 293 kg CO2eq.ha−1 y−1 for the conventional system. For the global warming potential category, the use phase was the most influential and the fuel used was the single most important factor.

A Life Cycle Environmental Impact Comparison between Traditional, Hybrid, and Electric Vehicles in the European Context

Global warming (GW) and urban pollution focused a great interest on hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) as cleaner alternatives to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The environmental impact related to the use of both ICEV and HEV mainly depends on the fossil fuel used by the thermal engines, while, in the case of the BEV, depends on the energy sources employed to produce electricity. Moreover, the production phase of each vehicle may also have a relevant environmental impact, due to the manufacturing processes and the materials employed. Starting from these considerations, the authors carried out a fair comparison of the environmental impact generated by three different vehicles characterized by different propulsion technology, i.e., an ICEV, an HEV, and a BEV, following the life cycle analysis methodology, i.e., taking into account five different environmental impact categories generated during all phases of the entire life of the vehicles, from raw material collection and parts production, to vehicle assembly and on-road use, finishing hence with the disposal phase. An extensive scenario analysis was also performed considering different electricity mixes and vehicle lifetime mileages. The results of this study confirmed the importance of the life cycle approach for the correct determination of the real impact related to the use of passenger cars and showed that the GW impact of a BEV during its entire life amounts to roughly 60% of an equivalent ICEV, while acidifying emissions and particulate matter were doubled. The HEV confirmed an excellent alternative to ICEV, showing good compromise between GW impact (85% with respect to the ICEV), terrestrial acidification, and particulate formation (similar to the ICEV). In regard to the mineral source deployment, a serious concern derives from the lithium-ion battery production for BEV. The results of the scenario analysis highlight how the environmental impact of a BEV may be altered by the lifetime mileage of the vehicle, and how the carbon footprint of the electricity used may nullify the ecological advantage of the BEV.

Artificial Intelligence Applied to Battery Research: Hype or Reality?

This is a critical review of artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) methods applied to battery research. It aims at providing a comprehensive, authoritative, and critical, yet easily understandable, review of general interest to the battery community. It addresses the concepts, approaches, tools, outcomes, and challenges of using AI/ML as an accelerator for the design and optimization of the next generation of batteries—a current hot topic. It intends to create both accessibility of these tools to the chemistry and electrochemical energy sciences communities and completeness in terms of the different battery R&D aspects covered.

Life Cycle Modelling of Extraction and Processing of Battery Minerals—A Parametric Approach

Sustainable battery production with low environmental footprints requires a systematic assessment of the entire value chain, from raw material extraction and processing to battery production and recycling. In order to explore and understand the variations observed in the reported footprints of raw battery materials, it is vital to re-assess the footprints of these material value chains. Identifying the causes of these variations by combining engineering and environmental system analysis expands our knowledge of the footprints of these battery materials. This article disaggregates the value chains of six raw battery materials (aluminum, copper, graphite, lithium carbonate, manganese, and nickel) and identifies the sources of variabilities (levers) for each process along each value chain. We developed a parametric attributional process-based life cycle model to explore the effect of these levers on the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the value chains, expressed in kg of CO2e. The parametric life cycle inventory model is used to conduct distinct life cycle assessments (LCA) for each material value chain by varying the identified levers within defined engineering ranges. 570 distinct LCAs are conducted for the aluminum value chain, 450 for copper, 170 for graphite, 39 for lithium carbonate via spodumene, 20 for lithium carbonate via brine, 260 for manganese, and 440 for nickel. Three-dimensional representations of these results for each value chain in kg of CO2e are presented as contour plots with gradient lines illustrating the intensity of lever combinations on the GHG emissions. The results of this study convey multidimensional insights into how changes in the lever settings of value chains yield variations in the overall GHG emissions of the raw materials. Parameterization of these value chains forms a flexible and high-resolution backbone, leading towards a more reliable life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries (LIB).

Life Cycle Assessment on Electric Moped Scooter Sharing

Due to their small size and low energy demand, light electric vehicles (LEVs), such as electric moped scooters, are considered as a space efficient and eco-friendly alternative for mobility in cities. However, the growth of electric moped scooter sharing services raises the question of how environmentally friendly this business model is, considering the entire lifecycle. Due to the dynamic market and insufficient availability of public data on the business processes of sharing services only a few studies on the impact of shared electric mopeds are available. Especially there is a lack of research on the impacts of key operational logistic parameters of the sharing system. This paper aims to fill this gap by conducting a life cycle assessment using the example of an electric moped scooter manufactured and used in sharing services in Germany, based on different operating scenarios. The results show that e-moped sharing has a similar environmental impact on global warming potential, in terms of passenger kilometers, as public transport, especially if long product lifetimes as well as efficient operation logistics are realized.

Charging Strategies to Minimize Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Electrified Delivery Vehicles

Electrification of delivery fleets has emerged as an important opportunity to reduce the transportation sector's environmental impact, including reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. When, where, and how vehicles are charged, however, impact the reduction potential. Not only does the carbon intensity of the grid vary across time and space, but charging decisions also influence battery degradation rates, resulting in more or less frequent battery replacement. Here, we propose a model that accounts for the spatial and temporal differences in charging emissions using marginal emission factors and degradation-induced differences in production emissions using a semi-empirical degradation model. We analyze four different charging strategies and demonstrate that a baseline charging scenario, in which a vehicle is fully charged immediately upon returning to a central depot, results in the highest emissions and employing alternative charging methods can reduce emissions by 8-37%. We show that when, where, and how batteries are charged also impact the total cost of ownership. Although the lowest cost and the lowest emitting charging strategies often align, the lowest cost deployment location for electric delivery vehicles may not be in the same location that maximizes environmental benefits.

Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from U.S. Light-Duty Transport in Line with the 2 °C Target

Making, driving, and disposing of U.S. light-duty vehicles (LDVs) account for 3% of global greenhouse gas emissions related to energy and processing. This study calculates future emissions and global temperature rises attributable to U.S. LDVs. We examine how 2021-2050 U.S. LDV cumulative emissions can be limited to 23.1 Gt CO_2equiv, helping to limit global warming to less than 2 °C. We vary four vehicle life cycle parameters (transport demand, sales share of alternative fuel vehicles, vehicle material recycling rates, and vehicle lifespans) in a dynamic fleet analysis to determine annual LDV sales, scrappage, and fleet compositions. We combine these data with vehicle technology and electricity emission scenarios to calculate annual production, use, and disposal emissions attributable to U.S. LDVs. Only 3% of the 1512 modeled pathways stay within the emission limit. Cumulative emissions are most sensitive to transport demand, and the speed of fleet electrification and electricity decarbonization. Increasing production of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) to 100% of sales by 2040 (at the latest) is necessary, and early retirement of internal combustion engine vehicles is beneficial. Rapid electricity decarbonization minimizes emissions from BEV use and increasingly energy-intensive vehicle production. Deploying high fuel economy vehicles can increase emissions from the production of BEV batteries and lightweight materials. Increased recycling has a small effect on these emissions because over the time period there are few postconsumer batteries and lightweight materials available for recycling. Without aggressive actions, U.S. LDVs will likely exceed the cumulative emissions budget by 2039 and contribute a further 0.02 °C to global warming by 2050, 2.7% of the remaining global 2 °C budget.

Roberts. Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Lithium-Ion Capacitors Production from Primary Ore and Recycled Minerals : Using LCA to balance environmental, economic and social performance in early phase research and development

The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology which allows quantification of environmental performance of products and processes based on complete product life cycle was utilised to evaluate the environmental burdens associated with manufacturing a 48 V lithium-ion capacitor (LIC) module. The prospective LCA compared the environmental impact of manufacturing a LIC module using primary ore materials and recycled materials from end-of-life LICs. For both the primary ore and recycled materials processes, the anode preparation stage was associated with the majority of the climate change and terrestrial acidification burdens. LIC module production utilising recovered materials from end-of-life LICs reduced the environmental impact compared to utilisation of primary ore resources. Application of the LCA methodology in early phase research and development (R&D) activities was demonstrated with a case study on reagent choice decision-making process that accounted for environmental impact, technical performance and costs in alignment with the sustainability triple bottom line concept.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Stationary Battery Installations in Two Renewable Energy Projects

The goal to decrease greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions is spurring interest in renewable energy systems from time-varying sources (e.g., photovoltaics, wind) and these can require batteries to help load balancing. However, the batteries themselves add additional GHG emissions to the electricity system in all its life cycle phases. This article begins by investigating the GHG emissions for the manufacturing of two stationary lithium-ion batteries, comparing production in Europe, US and China. Next, we analyze how the installation and operation of these batteries change the GHG emissions of the electricity supply in two pilot sites. Life cycle assessment is used for GHG emissions calculation. The regional comparison on GHG emissions of battery manufacturing shows that primary aluminum, cathode paste and battery cell production are the principal components of the GHG emissions of battery manufacturing. Regional variations are linked mainly to high grid electricity demand and regional changes in the electricity mixes, resulting in base values of 77 kg CO2-eq/kWh to 153 kg CO2-eq/kWh battery capacity. The assessment of two pilot sites shows that the implementation of batteries can lead to GHG emission savings of up to 77%, if their operation enables an increase in renewable energy sources in the electricity system.

Advances of 2nd Life Applications for Lithium Ion Batteries from Electric Vehicles Based on Energy Demand

Electromobility is a new approach to the reduction of CO2 emissions and the deceleration of global warming. Its environmental impacts are often compared to traditional mobility solutions based on gasoline or diesel engines. The comparison pertains mostly to the single life cycle of a battery. The impact of multiple life cycles remains an important, and yet unanswered, question. The aim of this paper is to demonstrate advances of 2nd life applications for lithium ion batteries from electric vehicles based on their energy demand. Therefore, it highlights the limitations of a conventional life cycle analysis (LCA) and presents a supplementary method of analysis by providing the design and results of a meta study on the environmental impact of lithium ion batteries. The study focuses on energy demand, and investigates its total impact for different cases considering 2nd life applications such as (C1) material recycling, (C2) repurposing and (C3) reuse. Required reprocessing methods such as remanufacturing of batteries lie at the basis of these 2nd life applications. Batteries are used in their 2nd lives for stationary energy storage (C2, repurpose) and electric vehicles (C3, reuse). The study results confirm that both of these 2nd life applications require less energy than the recycling of batteries at the end of their first life and the production of new batteries. The paper concludes by identifying future research areas in order to generate precise forecasts for 2nd life applications and their industrial dissemination.

Does Size Matter? The Influence of Size, Load Factor, Range Autonomy, and Application Type on the Life Cycle Assessment of Current and Future Medium- and Heavy-Duty Vehicles

The transparent, flexible, and open-source Python library carculator_truck is introduced to perform the life cycle assessment of a series of medium- and heavy-duty trucks across different powertrain types, size classes, fuel pathways, and years in a European context. Unsurprisingly, greenhouse gas emissions per ton-km reduce as size and load factor increase. By 2040, battery and fuel cell electric trucks appear to be promising options to reduce greenhouse gas emissions per ton-km on long distance segments, even where the required range autonomy is high. This requires that various conditions are met, such as improvements at the energy storage level and a drastic reduction of the greenhouse gas intensity of the electricity used for battery charging and hydrogen production. Meanwhile, these options may be considered for urban and regional applications, where they have a competitive advantage thanks to their superior engine efficiency. Finally, these alternative options will have to compete against more mature combustion-based technologies which, despite lower drivetrain efficiencies, are expected to reduce their exhaust emissions via engine improvements, hybridization of their powertrain, as well as the use of biomass-based and synthetic fuels.

Circularity of Lithium-Ion Battery Materials in Electric Vehicles

Batteries have the potential to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from on-road transportation. However, environmental and social impacts of producing lithium-ion batteries, particularly cathode materials, and concerns over material criticality are frequently highlighted as barriers to widespread electric vehicle adoption. Circular economy strategies, like reuse and recycling, can reduce impacts and secure regional supplies. To understand the potential for circularity, we undertake a dynamic global material flow analysis of pack-level materials that includes scenario analysis for changing battery cathode chemistries and electric vehicle demand. Results are produced regionwise and through the year 2040 to estimate the potential global and regional circularity of lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, iron, aluminum, copper, and graphite, although the analysis is focused on the cathode materials. Under idealized conditions, retired batteries could supply 60% of cobalt, 53% of lithium, 57% of manganese, and 53% of nickel globally in 2040. If the current mix of cathode chemistries evolves to a market dominated by NMC 811, a low cobalt chemistry, there is potential for 85% global circularity of cobalt in 2040. If the market steers away from cathodes containing cobalt, to an LFP-dominated market, cobalt, manganese, and nickel become less relevant and reach circularity before 2040. For each market to benefit from the recovery of secondary materials, recycling and manufacturing infrastructure must be developed in each region.

Energy flow analysis of laboratory scale lithium-ion battery cell production

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been proven as an enabling technology for consumer electronics, electro mobility, and stationary storage systems, and the steadily increasing demand for LIBs raises new challenges regarding their sustainability. The rising demand for comprehensive assessments of this technology's environmental impacts requires the identification of energy and materials consumed for its production, on lab to industrial scale. There are no studies available that provide a detailed picture of lab scale cell production, and only a few studies provide detailed analysis of the actual consumption, with large deviations. Thus, the present work provides an analysis of the energy flows for the production of an LIB cell. The analyzed energy requirements of individual production steps were determined by measurements conducted on a laboratory scale lithium-ion cell production and displayed in a transparent and traceable manner. For the comparison with literature values a distinction is made between the different production scales.

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Energy analysis of lab scale lithium-ion pouch cell production

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The energy data stem from in-house electricity measurements (primary data)

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The main contributors are coating, drying, formation process, and the dry room

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Different production scales such as lab, pilot, and industrial are compared

Opportunities for the State-of-the-Art Production of LIB Electrodes—A Review

A sustainable shift from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs) is essential to achieve a considerable reduction in emissions. The production of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) used in EVs is an energy-intensive and costly process. It can also lead to significant embedded emissions depending on the source of energy used. In fact, about 39% of the energy consumption in LIB production is associated with drying processes, where the electrode drying step accounts for about a half. Despite the enormous energy consumption and costs originating from drying processes, they are seldomly researched in the battery industry. Establishing knowledge within the LIB industry regarding state-of-the-art drying techniques and solvent evaporation mechanisms is vital for optimising process conditions, detecting alternative solvent systems, and discovering novel techniques. This review aims to give a summary of the state-of-the-art LIB processing techniques. An in-depth understanding of the influential factors for each manufacturing step of LIBs is then established, emphasising the electrode structure and electrochemical performance. Special attention is dedicated to the convection drying step in conventional water and N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP)-based electrode manufacturing. Solvent omission in dry electrode processing substantially lowers the energy demand and allows for a thick, mechanically stable electrode coating. Small changes in the electrode manufacturing route may have an immense impact on the final battery performance. Electrodes used for research and development often have a different production route and techniques compared to those processed in industry. The scalability issues related to the comparison across scales are discussed and further emphasised when the industry moves towards the next-generation techniques. Finally, the critical aspects of the innovations and industrial modifications that aim to overcome the main challenges are presented.

Challenges in Ecofriendly Battery Recycling and Closed Material Cycles: A Perspective on Future Lithium Battery Generations

The global use of lithium-ion batteries of all types has been increasing at a rapid pace for many years. In order to achieve the goal of an economical and sustainable battery industry, the recycling and recirculation of materials is a central element on this path. As the achievement of high 95% recovery rates demanded by the European Union for some metals from today’s lithium ion batteries is already very challenging, the question arises of how the process chains and safety of battery recycling as well as the achievement of closed material cycles are affected by the new lithium battery generations, which are supposed to enter the market in the next 5 to 10 years. Based on a survey of the potential development of battery technology in the next years, where a diversification between high-performance and cost-efficient batteries is expected, and today’s knowledge on recycling, the challenges and chances of the new battery generations regarding the development of recycling processes, hazards in battery dismantling and recycling, as well as establishing a circular economy are discussed. It becomes clear that the diversification and new developments demand a proper separation of battery types before recycling, for example by a transnational network of dismantling and sorting locations, and flexible and high sophisticated recycling processes with case-wise higher safety standards than today. Moreover, for the low-cost batteries, recycling of the batteries becomes economically unattractive, so legal stipulations become important. However, in general, it must be still secured that closing the material cycle for all battery types with suitable processes is achieved to secure the supply of raw materials and also to further advance new developments.

The Carbon Footprint of Electrified City Buses: A Case Study in Trondheim, Norway

In August 2019, a new bus fleet of 36 electric and 58 hybrid buses were implemented in Trondheim, Norway. This paper examines the carbon footprint of electrified city buses, by addressing the achieved and potential reduction for the new bus fleet. Important aspects such as geographical location of production, charging electricity mix, and impact from production and operation on lifetime emissions, are also examined. A meta-analysis on life cycle assessment studies was undertaken to investigate greenhouse gas emissions and energy demand in different parts of bus production. This is followed by the production of a bus model using the findings and comparing electrified buses with diesel and HVO buses. The models were then used in a case study of the bus fleet in Trondheim, to understand the specific parameters affecting the carbon footprint. The results show that the overall carbon footprint has been considerably reduced (37%) by implementing biofuel and electrified buses, and that a further reduction of 52% can be achieved through full electrification. The operation emissions for the fleet were found to be 49 g CO2-eq/person-km, which is lower than the average city bus and passenger car in Norway.

Life Cycle Assessment of an NMC Battery for Application to Electric Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles and Comparison with a Sodium-Nickel-Chloride Battery

This paper presents the results of an environmental assessment of a Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) Lithium-ion traction battery for Battery Electric Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles (BEV-LDCV) used for urban and regional freight haulage. A cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of NMC111 is provided, operation and end-of-life stages are included, and insight is also given into a Life Cycle Assessment of different NMC chemistries. The environmental impacts of the manufacturing stages of the NMC111 battery are then compared with those of a Sodium-Nickel-Chloride (ZEBRA) battery. In the second part of the work, two electric-battery LDCVs (powered with NMC111 and ZEBRA batteries, respectively) and a diesel urban LDCV are analysed, considering a wide set of environmental impact categories. The results show that the NMC111 battery has the highest impacts from production in most of the impact categories. Active cathode material, Aluminium, Copper, and energy use for battery production are the main contributors to the environmental impact. However, when vehicle application is investigated, NMC111-BEV shows lower environmental impacts, in all the impact categories, than ZEBRA-BEV. This is mainly due to the greater efficiency of the NMC111 battery during vehicle operation. Finally, when comparing BEVs to a diesel LDCV, the electric powertrains show advantages over the diesel one as far as global warming, abiotic depletion potential-fossil fuels, photochemical oxidation, and ozone layer depletion are concerned. However, the diesel LDCV performs better in almost all the other investigated impact categories.

A comparative life cycle assessment on lithium-ion battery: Case study on electric vehicle battery in China considering battery evolution

China has become the largest electric vehicle (EV) market in the world since 2015. Consequently, the lithium-ion battery (LiB) market in China is also expanding fast. LiB makers are continually introducing new types of LiBs into the market to improve LiBs' performance. However, there will be a considerable amount of waste LiBs generated in China. These waste LiBs should be appropriately recycled to avoid resources' waste or environmental pollution problems. Yet, because LiBs' type keeps changing, the environmental impact and profitability of the waste LiB recycling industry in China become uncertain. In this research, we reveal the detailed life cycle process of EVs' LiBs in China first. Then, the environmental impact of each type of LiB is speculated using the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. Moreover, we clarify how LiBs' evolution will affect the economic effect of the waste battery recycling industry in China. We perform a sensitivity analysis focusing on waste LiBs' collection rate. We found that along with LiBs' evolution, their environmental impact is decreasing. Furthermore, if waste LiBs could be appropriately recycled, their life cycle environmental impact would be further dramatically decreased. On the other hand, the profitability of the waste battery recycling industry in China would decrease in the future. Moreover, it is essential to improve waste LiBs' collection rate to establish an efficient waste LiB industry. Such a trend should be noticed by the Chinese government and waste LiB recycling operators to establish a sustainable waste LiB recycling industry in the future.

Towards Ferry Electrification in the Maritime Sector

The electrification of vessels/ferries for green transformation requires onboard electrical energy storage as well as an energy supply network in the port area. In this context, a lot of efforts have been made in the last decade that have been reviewed in such a way that only a single aspect of the green transformation challenge is highlighted. Consequently, the objective of this research is to develop knowledge by examining the current state of affairs and provide, accordingly, abstract implementation guidelines for green transformation through vessel/ferry electrification. A comprehensive study on the electrification of vessels, in industry as well as in academia, is performed. Based on the data collected through a systematic study, a comparison of various pure electric and hybrid vessels in terms of certain performance attributes, such as battery capacity, passenger and cargo capacities, and size (length) of the vessel, is performed. Moreover, the distribution of vessels according to different countries and manufacturers is provided. Finally, certain technical, operational, and legislative challenges are explored.

Environmental Life Cycle Impacts of Automotive Batteries Based on a Literature Review

We compiled 50 publications from the years 2005–2020 about life cycle assessment (LCA) of Li-ion batteries to assess the environmental effects of production, use, and end of life for application in electric vehicles. Investigated LCAs showed for the production of a battery pack per kWh battery capacity a median of 280 kWh/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 200–500 kWh/kWh_bc) for the primary energy consumption and a median of 120 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 70–175 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc) for greenhouse gas emissions. We expect results for current batteries to be in the lower range. Over the lifetime of an electric vehicle, these emissions relate to 20 g CO2-eq/km (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 10–50 g CO2-eq/km). Considering recycling processes, greenhouse gas savings outweigh the negative environmental impacts of recycling and can reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions by a median value of 20 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 5–29 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc). Overall, many LCA results overestimated the environmental impact of cell manufacturing, due to the assessments of relatively small or underutilized production facilities. Material emissions, like from mining and especially processing from metals and the cathode paste, could have been underestimated, due to process-based assumptions and non-regionalized primary data. Second-life applications were often not considered.

Analysis of the Existing Barriers for the Market Development of Power to Hydrogen (P2H) in Italy

New technological solutions are required to control the impact of the increasing presence of renewable energy sources connected to the electric grid that are characterized by unpredictable production (i.e., wind and solar energy). Energy storage is becoming essential to stabilize the grid when a mismatch between production and demand occurs. Among the available solutions, Power to Hydrogen (P2H) is one of the most attractive options. However, despite the potential, many barriers currently hinder P2H market development. The literature reports general barriers and strategies to overcome them, but a specific analysis is fundamental to identifying how these barriers concretely arise in national and regional frameworks, since tailored solutions are needed to foster the development of P2H local market. The paper aims to identify and to analyze the existing barriers for P2H market uptake in Italy. The paper shows how several technical, regulatory and economic issues are still unsolved, resulting in a source of uncertainty for P2H investment. The paper also suggests possible approaches and solutions to address the Italian barriers and to support politics and decision-makers in the definition and implementation of the national hydrogen strategy.

Method for a Multi-Vehicle, Simulation-Based Life Cycle Assessment and Application to Berlin’s Motorized Individual Transport

The transport sector in Germany causes one-quarter of energy-related greenhouse gas emissions. One potential solution to reduce these emissions is the use of battery electric vehicles. Although a number of life cycle assessments have been conducted for these vehicles, the influence of a transport system-wide transition has not been addressed sufficiently. Therefore, we developed a method which combines life cycle assessment with an agent-based transport simulation and synthetic electric-, diesel- and gasoline-powered vehicle models. We use a transport simulation to obtain the number of vehicles, their lifetime mileage and road-specific consumption. Subsequently, we analyze the product systems’ vehicle production, use phase and end-of-life. The results are scaled depending on the covered distance, the vehicle weight and the consumption for the whole life cycle. The results indicate that the sole transition of drive trains is insufficient to significantly lower the greenhouse gas emissions. However, sensitivity analyses demonstrate that there is a considerable potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions with higher shares of renewable energies, a different vehicle distribution and a higher lifetime mileage. The method facilitates the assessment of the ecological impacts of complete car-based transportation in urban agglomerations and is able to analyze different transport sectors.

Risk Assessment of a Battery-Powered High-Speed Ferry Using Formal Safety Assessment

Fully electric ships have been widely developed, investigated and evaluated by the maritime industry as a potential solution to respond to the emissions control required according to the International Maritime Organization (IMO). This study aims at presenting a novel approach to evaluate the safety level of a battery-powered high speed catamaran. Following the Formal Safety Assessment procedure, the risk assessment of the considered ship was conducted leading to the identification of the involved hazards along with the estimation of their frequency and consequences thus allowing for the identification of the most severe hazards. Fault tree analysis is carried out for and the identified top events followed by an event tree analysis to estimate the risk and safety level of the vessel. Furthermore, a cost-benefit assessment is conducted to evaluate the financial impact of selected risk control options. The derived results indicate that the application of battery power systems for high speed ferries exhibits low and acceptable accident frequencies. It is also supported the current regulation to carry out mandatory risk assessment for battery-powered ships.