Assessment of the Pharmacological Properties and Phytochemical Profile of Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam Using in Vitro Studies, in Silico Docking, and Multivariate Analysis

Chemical Constituents and Biological Activities of Bruguiera Genus and Its Endophytes: A Review

The genus Bruguiera, a member of the Rhizophoraceae family, is predominantly found in coastal areas as a mangrove plant, boasting a rich and diverse community of endophytes. This review systematically compiled approximately 496 compounds derived from both the Bruguiera genus and its associated endophytes, including 152 terpenoids, 17 steroids, 16 sulfides, 44 alkaloids and peptides, 66 quinones, 68 polyketides, 19 flavonoids, 38 phenylpropanoids, 54 aromatic compounds, and 22 other compounds. Among these, 201 compounds exhibited a spectrum of activities, including cytotoxicity, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antidiabetic, insecticidal and mosquito repellent, and enzyme inhibitory properties, etc. These findings provided promising lead compounds for drug discovery. Certain similar or identical compounds were found to be simultaneously present in both Bruguiera plants and their endophytes, and the phenomenon of their interaction relationship was discussed.

Appraisals on the chemical characterization and biological potentials of Ranunculus constantinopolitanus extracts using chromatographic, computational, and molecular network approaches

In this context, phytochemicals were extracted from Ranunculus constantinopolitanus using ethyl acetate (EA), ethanol, ethanol/water (70%), and water solvent. The analysis encompassed quantification of total phenolic and flavonoid content using spectrophotometric assays, chemical profiling via high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) for the extracts, and assessment of antioxidant activity via 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS), Cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), metal chelating (MCA), and phosphomolybdenum (PBD) assays. Moreover, antimicrobial activity was assessed against four different bacterial strains, as well as various yeasts. Enzyme inhibitory activities were evaluated against five types of enzymes. Additionally, the extracts were examined for their anticancer and protective effects on several cancer cell lines and the human normal cell line. All of the extracts exhibited significant levels of ferulic acid, kaempferol, and caffeic acid. All tested extracts demonstrated antimicrobial activity, with Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa being most sensitive to EA and ethanol extracts. Molecular docking studies revealed that kaempferol-3-O-glucoside strong interactions with AChE, BChE and tyrosinase. In addition, network pharmacology showed an association between gastric cancer and kaempferol-3-O-glucoside. Based on the results, R. constantinopolitanus can be a potential reservoir of bioactive compounds for future bioproduct innovation and pharmaceutical industries.

Plant Extracts as Skin Care and Therapeutic Agents

Natural ingredients have been used for centuries for skin treatment and care. Interest in the health effects of plants has recently increased due to their safety and applicability in the formulation of pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. Long-known plant materials as well as newly discovered ones are increasingly being used in natural products of plant origin. This review highlights the beneficial effects of plants and plant constituents on the skin, including moisturizing (e.g., Cannabis sativa, Hydrangea serrata, Pradosia mutisii and Carthamus tinctorius), anti-aging (e.g., Aegopodium podagraria, Euphorbia characias, Premna odorata and Warburgia salutaris), antimicrobial (e.g., Betula pendula and Epilobium angustifolium), antioxidant (e.g., Kadsura coccinea, Rosmarinus officinalis, Rubus idaeus and Spatholobus suberectus), anti-inflammatory (e.g., Antidesma thwaitesianum, Helianthus annuus, Oenanthe javanica, Penthorum chinense, Ranunculus bulumei and Zanthoxylum bungeanum), regenerative (e.g., Aloe vera, Angelica polymorpha, Digitaria ciliaris, Glycyrrihza glabra and Marantodes pumilum), wound healing (e.g., Agrimonia eupatoria, Astragalus floccosus, Bursera morelensis, Jatropha neopauciflora and Sapindus mukorossi), photoprotective (e.g., Astragalus gombiformis, Calea fruticose, Euphorbia characias and Posoqueria latifolia) and anti-tyrosinase activity (e.g., Aerva lanata, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Dodonaea viscosa, Lonicera japonica and Schisandra chinensis), as well as their role as excipients in cosmetics (coloring (e.g., Beta vulgaris, Centaurea cyanus, Hibiscus sabdariffa and Rubia tinctiorum), protective and aromatic agents (e.g., Hyssopus officinalis, Melaleuca alternifolia, Pelargonium graveolens and Verbena officinalis)).

Allelopathic Potential of Mangroves from the Red River Estuary against the Rice Weed Echinochloa crus-galli and Variation in Their Leaf Metabolome

Mangroves are the only forests located at the sea–land interface in tropical and subtropical regions. They are key elements of tropical coastal ecosystems, providing numerous ecosystem services. Among them is the production of specialized metabolites by mangroves and their potential use in agriculture to limit weed growth in cultures. We explored the in vitro allelopathic potential of eight mangrove species’ aqueous leaf extracts (Avicennia marina, Kandelia obovata, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Sonneratia apetala, Sonneratia caseolaris, Aegiceras corniculatum, Lumnitzera racemosa and Rhizophora stylosa) on the germination and growth of Echinochloa crus-galli, a weed species associated with rice, Oryza sativa. Leaf methanolic extracts of mangrove species were also studied via UHPLC-ESI/qToF to compare their metabolite fingerprints. Our results highlight that A. corniculatum and S. apetala negatively affected E. crus-galli development with a stimulating effect or no effect on O. sativa. Phytochemical investigations of A. corniculatum allowed us to putatively annotate three flavonoids and two saponins. For S. apetala, three flavonoids, a tannin and two unusual sulfated ellagic acid derivatives were found. Some of these compounds are described for the first time in these species. Overall, A. corniculatum and S. apetala leaves are proposed as promising natural alternatives against E. crus-galli and should be further assessed under field conditions.

Phytochemical Screening, Antioxidant, and Enzyme Inhibitory Properties of Three Prangos Species (P. heyniae, P. meliocarpoides var. meliocarpoides, and P. uechtritzii) Depicted by Comprehensive LC-MS and Multivariate Data Analysis

The aim of the present study was to identify/quantify bioactive compounds and determine the antioxidant activity and enzyme inhibitory effects of various solvent extracts (n-hexane, ethyl acetate, methanol, and water) of Prangos heyniae H. Duman and M.F. Watson, Prangos meliocarpoides var. meliocarpoides, and Prangos uechtritzii Boiss. and Hausskn. This is the first time such a report has been designed to validate the phytochemical composition and bioactivity (especially enzyme inhibitory properties) of these plants. A combined approach of liquid chromatography (LC) with mass spectrometry (HR-MS and MSⁿ) allowed to identify that P. heyniae contains condensed tannins; P. meliocarpoides is rich in hydrolysable tannins; and P. uechtritzii possesses coumarins, flavonoids, and hydroxycinnamic acids. Different extracts were tested for antioxidant activities using a battery of assays, such as 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (phosphomolybdenum), and metal chelating. Enzyme inhibitory effects were investigated using acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), tyrosinase, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase as target enzymes. The obtained results depended on the extraction solvents used for each Prangos species. The methanol extract of P. meliocarpoides var. meliocarpoides exhibited significant radical scavenging activity (DPPH: 52.27 mg Trolox equivalent (TE)/g; ABTS: 92.84 mg TE/g), the most potent-reducing potential (CUPRAC: 154.04 mg TE/g; FRAP: 104.34 mg TE/g), and high TAC (2.52 mmol TE/g). Moreover, the strongest BChE (7.97 mg galantamine equivalent/g), α-amylase (0.46 mmol acarbose equivalent/g), and tyrosinase (81.15 mg kojic acid equivalent/g) inhibitory effects were observed for the hexane extract of P. meliocarpoides var. meliocarpoides. Correlation analysis showed a significant positive correlation between hydrolysable tannins and antioxidant activities. The same trend was also observed between the same class of compounds and the inhibitory effects on enzymatic activities. These results suggest a principal role of hydrolysable tannins in the observed bioactivities of Prangos. Our results suggested that the tested Prangos species could be valuable as sources of natural agents in the development of health-promoting applications.

Antioxidant, Antihypertensive, Hypoglycaemic and Nootropic Activity of a Polyphenolic Extract from the Halophyte Ice Plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum)

This study aims to determine the potential antioxidant, antihypertensive, hypoglycaemic and nootropic activity of a purified polyphenolic extract from the halophyte ice plant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum). The ice plant extract showed good antioxidant activity measured by DPPH, ORAC, TEAC, FRAP and ferrous ion chelating activity. Moreover, the extract showed potent ACE, DPP-IV and PEP-inhibitory activity (90.5%, 98.6% and 73.1%, respectively, at a final concentration of 1 mg/mL). The extract was fractionated and the fraction with the highest content of total phenolic compounds showed the highest bioactivity, suggesting that polyphenols could be mainly responsible for the abovementioned activities. The tentative polyphenol identification by HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS in this fraction revealed that flavones (>65%) are the major group, with apigenin (38%) predominating, followed by diosmin (17.7%) and luteolin (11.9%). They could presumably be the main elements responsible for the enzymatic inhibition activity. Additionally, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, p-coumaric acid and a hydroxycinnamic acid derivative (2-O-(p-cumaroyl)-l-malic acid) were found in the extract. To our knowledge, this is the first time that some of these activities have been reported for halophyte extracts.

Towards the Pharmacological Validation and Phytochemical Profiling of the Decoction and Maceration of Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam.—A Traditionally Used Medicinal Halophyte

Decoctions (leaves and roots) of Bruguiera gymnorhiza (L.) Lam. are traditionally used against diabetes in many countries, including Mauritius. This study endeavoured to evaluate the inhibitory potential of leaves, roots, twigs and fruits extracts (decoction and maceration) of B. gymnorhiza against key enzymes relevant to diabetes. Considering complications related to diabetes, other clinical enzymes, namely, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), tyrosinase, elastase and pancreatic lipase, were used. Identification of compounds was carried out using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS). Antioxidant capacities were assessed using DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, CUPRAC, phosphomolybdenum, metal chelating. The relationship between mode of extraction, plant parts and biological activities was determined using multivariate analysis. Macerated fruits, rich in phytochemicals (phenolic, flavanol, tannin, and triterpenoid), exhibited substantially high antioxidant capacities related to radical scavenging (DPPH: 547.75 ± 10.99 and ABTS: 439.59 ± 19.13 mg TE/g, respectively) and reducing potential (CUPRAC: 956.04 ± 11.90 and FRAP: 577.26 ± 4.55 mg TE/g, respectively). Additionally, the same extract significantly depressed AChE and BChE (3.75 ± 0.03 and 2.19 ± 0.13 mg GALAE/g, respectively), tyrosinase (147.01 ± 0.78 mg KAE/g), elastase (3.14 ± 0.08 mg OE/g) and amylase (1.22 ± 0.01 mmol ACAE/g) enzymatic activities. Phytochemical results confirmed the presence of 119 compounds in all maceration and 163 compounds in all decoction samples. The screening also revealed important compounds in the extracts, namely, quinic acid, brugierol, bruguierol A, epigallocatechin, chlorogenic acid, to name a few. Multivariate analysis reported that the plant parts of B. gymnorhiza greatly influenced the observed biological activities in contrast to the types of extraction methods employed. Docking calculations have supported the findings of the experimental part through the high binding affinity and strong interactions of some compounds against tyrosinase, AChE, BChE and elastase enzymes. The decocted root and leaf of B. gymnorhiza showed low to moderate antidiabetic activity, thereby partially supporting its traditional uses in the management of diabetes. However, the fruit, the most active organ, can be used as a diet supplement to reduce the risk of diabetes complications after evaluating its cytotoxic effects.

Biotechnological applications of mangrove plants and their isolated compounds in medicine-a mechanistic overview

Mangrove plants, also known as halophytes, are ecologically important plants that grow in various tropical and subtropical intertidal regions. Owing to the extreme abiotic and biotic stressful conditions they thrive in, these plants produce unique compounds with promising pharmacological propensities. Mangroves are inhabited by an astronomical number of fungal communities which produce a diverse array of extracellular degradative enzymes, namely: amylase, cellulase, xylanase, pectinase, cholesterol oxidase, etc. Such enzymes can be isolated from the mangrove fungi and harnessed for different biotechnological applications, for example, as replacements for chemical catalysts. Mangrove microbes attract considerable attention as they shelter the largest group of marine microorganisms that are resistant to extreme conditions and can produce novel biogenic substances. Vaccines developed from mangrove microbes may promise a safe future by developing effective immunization procedures with a minimum of economic burden. Interestingly, mangroves offer an exciting opportunity for synthesizing nanoparticles in a greener way as these plants are naturally rich in phytochemicals. Rhizophora mucronata Lam., Avicennia officinalis L. and Excoecaria agallocha L. are capable of synthesizing nanoparticles which have evolved recently as an alternative in various industries and are used for their biomedical application. Besides, the phytoconstituents isolated from mangrove plants, such as: gallic acid, galactose, lupeol, catechins, carotenoids, etc., were explored for various biological activities. These compounds are used in the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries to produce antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, and other therapeutic agents. The present review provides information on the biotechnological potentials of mangrove plants and their bioactive compounds as a new source of novel drugs, enzymes, nanoparticles and therapeutically important microbial pigments. Thus, this review forms a base of support and hasten the urgent research on biomedical applications of mangroves.

Phytochemical Profile and Biological Activities of the Extracts from Two Oenanthe Species (O. aquatica and O. silaifolia)

This study presents the evaluation of biological activities and chemical profiling of Oenanthe aquatica (L.) Poir. and Oenanthe silaifolia M. Bieb. The phytochemical profile, antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory, cytotoxic and antiviral activities of the methanolic and aqueous extracts were investigated. The aqueous extract of O. aquatica possessing the highest content of phenolics (60.85 mg gallic acid equivalent/g extract), also exhibited the strongest radical scavenging potential against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (79.46 and 148.66 mg Trolox equivalent/g extract, respectively), the highest reducing ability (207.59 and 107.27 mg Trolox equivalent/g extract, for cupric reducing antioxidant capacity and ferric reducing antioxidant activity, respectively), metal chelating potential (33.91 mg ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid equivalent/g extract) and total antioxidant ability (1.60 mmol Trolox equivalent/g extract). Liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-quadrupole time-of-flight-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS) permitted tentative identification of compounds from simple organic acids, phenolic acids, coumarins, flavonoids and their glycosides in O. aquatica and O. silaifolia extracts. The methanolic extract of O. aquatica substantially depressed acetylcholinesterase (3.67 mg galantamine equivalent/g extract), tyrosinase (126.66 mg kojic acid equivalent/g extract), and α-amylase (0.83 mmol acarbose equivalent/g extract) enzymes. The methanolic extract of O. silaifolia showed highest enzymatic inhibitory property against butyrylcholinesterase, and its aqueous extract depressed α-glucosidase activity (0.26 mmol acarbose equivalent/g extract). All tested extracts exerted selective toxicity towards cancer cell lines, and the highest anticancer potential was found for O. aquatica aqueous extract on FaDu and HeLa cells with CC₅₀ of 57.36 and 47.16 µg/mL, respectively. Significant antiviral activity against HSV-1 (HHV-1) was found for both aqueous extracts in concentrations of 1000 µg/mL, which inhibited the HSV-1 cytopathic effect (CPE) in virus infected VERO cells and reduced the virus infective titer by more than 3 log (logCCID₅₀/mL). This study has produced critical scientific data on O. aquatica and O. silaifolia, which are potential contenders for the development of novel phyto-pharmaceuticals.

Chemical characterization, antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory effects of Mitracarpus hirtus extracts

Mitracarpus hirtus (L.) DC. (Family: Rubiaceae) is a tropical annual herb commonly found in America and Mexico. In the present study, the methanol, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and aqueous extracts of the plant were tested for total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid content (TFC) and antioxidant activities were evaluated using a battery of assays including 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), cupric reducing antioxidant capacity, total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (phosphomolybdenum) and metal chelating. Enzyme inhibitory effects were investigated using acetylcholinesterase (AChE), tyrosinase, α-amylase and α-glucosidase as target enzymes. The phytochemical profile was obtained using liquid chromatography-diode array detection-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-DAD-ESI-MSⁿ), liquid chromatography-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-APCI-MSⁿ) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) experiments. Results showed that the dichloromethane and ethyl acetate extracts yielded the highest TPC (29.10 ± 0.07 mg gallic acid equivalent/g) and TFC (38.14 ± 0.91 mg rutin equivalent/g), respectively. Aqueous extract showed weak activity against tested enzymes but demonstrated the strongest ABTS scavenging activity (59.39 ± 1.19 mg trolox equivalent/g) and is the strongest Fe³⁺ reducer (59.42 ± 0.59 mg trolox equivalent/g). Phytochemical analysis revealed the presence of phenolics, pyrrolizidine alkaloids and triterpene acid. This is the first report gathering scientific data on antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory activities and phytochemical composition of M. hirtus and the obtained results can be used as starting point for further investigation on this traditional medicinal herb.

Chromatographic Separation of Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston Bark, Fruit and Leaf Constituents from Bioactive Extracts

Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston (also known as Cup Saucer plant) is a food plant with wide applications in traditional medicine, particularly in Ayurveda. Extracts obtained with four solvents (dichloromethane, methanol, ethyl acetate and water), from three plant parts, (fruit, leaf and bark) were obtained. Extracts were tested for total phenolic, flavonoid content and antioxidant activities using a battery of assays including 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), cupric reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (phosphomolybdenum) and metal chelating. Enzyme inhibitory effects were investigated using acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), tyrosinase, α-amylase and α-glucosidase as target enzymes. Results showed that the methanolic bark extract exhibited significant radical scavenging activity (DPPH: 202.09 ± 0.15; ABTS: 490.12 ± 0.18 mg Trolox equivalent (TE)/g), reducing potential (FRAP: 325.86 ± 4.36: CUPRAC: 661.82 ± 0.40 mg TE/g) and possessed the highest TAC (3.33 ± 0.13 mmol TE/g). The methanolic extracts were subjected to LC-DAD-MSⁿ and NMR analysis. A two-column LC method was developed to separate constituents, allowing to identify and quantify forty-four and fifteen constituents in bark and fruits, respectively. Main compound in bark was epicatechin-3-O-sulphate and isolation of compound was performed to confirm its identity. Bark extract contained catechins, procyanidins, gallic acid derivatives and the sulfur containing spiroketal named breynins. Aerial parts mostly contained flavonoid glycosides. Considering the bioassays, the methanolic bark extract resulted a potent tyrosinase (152.79 ± 0.27 mg kojic acid equivalent/g), α-amylase (0.99 ± 0.01 mmol acarbose equivalent ACAE/g) and α-glucosidase (2.16 ± 0.01 mmol ACAE/g) inhibitor. In conclusion, methanol is able to extract the efficiently the phytoconstituents of B. retusa and the bark is the most valuable source of compounds.

HPLC-FRAP methodology and biological activities of different stem bark extracts of Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp

Cajanus cajan. (L.) Millsp. (C. cajan) (Family: Fabaceae) also known as pigeon pea, is a famous food and cover/forage crop bearing a high amount of key amino acids (methionine, lysine and tryptophan). This study investigated into the total phenolic (TPC), flavonoid content (TFC), antioxidant [2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2 -azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), cupric reducing antioxidant capacity, total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (phosphomolybdenum) and metal chelating] activities and enzyme [α-amylase, α-glucosidase, tyrosinase, acetyl-(AChE), butyryl-(BChE) cholinesterase] inhibitory effects of four extracts (methanol, hexane, ethyl acetate, aqueous) prepared from C. cajan stem bark. Direct identification of antioxidants was also conducted using the high performance liquid chromatography-ferric reducing antioxidant power (HPLC-FRAP) system. The highest TPC and TFC were recorded with the methanolic (23.22 ± 0.17 mg GAE/g) and ethyl acetate extracts (19.43 ± 0.24 mg RE/g), respectively. The methanolic extract exhibited important antioxidant activity with DPPH (38.41 ± 0.05 mg Trolox equivalent (TE)/g), ABTS (70.49 ± 3.62 mg TE/g), CUPRAC (81.86 ± 2.40 mg TE/g), FRAP (42.96 ± 0.59 mg TE/g) and metal chelating (17.00 ± 1.26 mg ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid equivalent/g). p-coumaric and caffeic acid were the predominant antioxidants in the samples. Results from enzymatic assays showed the potential abilities of hexane extract in inhibiting the AChE, BChE, α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes. From the results obtained in this study, it can be concluded that C. cajan can be considered as a promising source of antioxidants and key enzyme inhibitors that can be exploited for future bioproduct development.