Temperature and Concentration Dependence of Human Whole Blood and Protein Drying Droplets

Dried Blood Matrix as a New Material for the Detection of DNA Viruses

The gold standard for diagnosing viruses such as the Hepatitis B Virus has remained largely unchanged, relying on conventional methods involving extraction, purification, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). This approach is hindered by limited availability, as it is time-consuming and requires highly trained personnel. Moreover, it suffers from low recovery rates of the nucleic acid molecules for samples with low copy numbers. To address the challenges of complex instrumentation and low recovery rate of DNA, a drying process coupled with thermal treatment of whole blood is employed, resulting in the creation of a dried blood matrix characterized by a porous structure with a high surface-to-volume ratio where it also inactivates the amplification inhibitors present in whole blood. Drawing on insights from Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET)- Barrett-Joyner-Halenda (BJH) analysis, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), detection assay is devised for HBV, as a demonstration, from whole blood with high recovery of DNA and simplified instrumentation achieving a limit of detection (LOD) of 10 IU mL-1. This assay can be completed in <1.5 h using a simple heater, can be applied to other DNA viruses, and is expected to be suitable for point-of-care, especially in low-resource settings.

Dried blood drops on vertical surfaces

The analysis of structures in dried droplets has made it possible to detect the presence and conformational state of macromolecules in relevant biofluids. Therefore, the implementation of novel drying strategies for pattern formation could facilitate the identification of biomarkers for the diagnosis of pathologies. We present an experimental study of patterns formed by evaporating water-diluted blood droplets on a vertical surface. Three significant morphological features were observed in vertical droplet deposits: (1) The highest concentration of non-volatile molecules is consistently deposited in the lower part of the droplet, regardless of erythrocyte concentration. (2) The central region of deposits decreases rapidly with hematocrit; (3) At high erythrocyte concentrations (36-40% HCT), a broad coating of blood serum is produced in the upper part of the deposit. These findings are supported by the radial intensity profile, the relative thickness of the crown, the aspect ratio of the deformation, the relative area of the central region, and the Entropy of the Gray Level Co-occurrence Matrix Entropy (GLCM). Moreover, we explore the pattern formation during the drying of vertical blood drops. We found that hematocrit concentration has a significant impact on droplet drying dynamics. Finally, we conducted a proof-of-concept test to investigate the impact of vertical droplet evaporation on blood droplets with varying lipid concentrations. The results revealed that it is possible to differentiate between deposits with normal, slightly elevated, and moderately elevated lipid levels using only the naked eye.

Criteria of Distribution Transitions in Dispersed Multiphase Systems Based on an Extended Lattice Model

Dispersed multiphase systems are ubiquitous in biological systems, energy industries, and medical science. The distribution transition of the dispersed phase is critical to the properties and functions of the multiphase systems, among which the agglomeration, adsorption, and extraction processes are of most significance due to their impact on the colloidal stability, interface modification, and particle synthesis. To reveal fundamental correlations between the macroscopic particle distributions and the microscopic interactions, general thermodynamic models of the dispersed multiphase systems are needed. Here, based on Meyer's model, which is restricted to binary isotropic mixtures, we propose a novel extended lattice model that can be applied to multicomponent anisotropic mixtures with interfaces considered. For agglomeration, adsorption, and extraction processes, the approximate free energy differences between the initial distribution and the final distribution are obtained. Based on the minimum free energy principle, the above free energy differences are used to derive three criteria for the prediction of the preferable distribution of the system with given interparticle interaction potentials. While the quasi-uniform number density assumption is still required for all the previous lattice models, the long-range interactions neglected by previous lattice models are incorporated. The validity of our model and criteria is verified by many-body dissipative particle dynamics (mDPD) simulations. By tuning the interaction coefficients between mDPD particles, the simulated distribution transitions for all the agglomeration, adsorption, and extraction cases perfectly match the predictions from the three criteria. The good agreement between the theoretical predictions and the mDPD simulation results shows the great potential of our model for applications in various dispersed multiphase systems.

Optical profilometry for forensic bloodstain imaging

Understanding the physical, chemical and biological changes that occur during the drying of a bloodstain is important in many aspects of forensic science including bloodstain pattern analysis and time since deposition estimation. This research assesses the use of optical profilometry to analyze changes in the surface morphology of degrading bloodstains created using three different volumes (4, 11, and 20 μL) up to 4 weeks after deposition. We analyzed six surface characteristics, including surface average roughness, kurtosis, skewness, maximum height, number of cracks and pits, and height distributions from the topographical scans obtained from bloodstains. Full and partial optical profiles were obtained to examine long-term (minimum of 1.5-h intervals) and short-term (5-min intervals) changes. The majority of the changes in surface characteristics occurred within the first 35 min after bloodstain deposition, in agreement with current research in bloodstain drying. Optical profilometry is a nondestructive and efficient method to obtain surface profiles of bloodstains, and can be integrated easily into additional research workflows including but not limited to time since deposition estimation. Optical profilometry is a non-contact tool to scan bloodstains in ambient conditions Drying phases are observable in small drip bloodstains Significant surface morphology changes occur within 35 min after deposition.

Drying of bio-colloidal sessile droplets: Advances, applications, and perspectives

Drying of biologically-relevant sessile droplets, including passive systems such as DNA, proteins, plasma, and blood, as well as active microbial systems comprising bacterial and algal dispersions, has garnered considerable attention over the last decades. Distinct morphological patterns emerge when bio-colloids undergo evaporative drying, with significant potential in a wide range of biomedical applications, spanning bio-sensing, medical diagnostics, drug delivery, and antimicrobial resistance. Consequently, the prospects of novel and thrifty bio-medical toolkits based on drying bio-colloids have driven tremendous progress in the science of morphological patterns and advanced quantitative image-based analysis. This review presents a comprehensive overview of bio-colloidal droplets drying on solid substrates, focusing on the experimental progress during the last ten years. We provide a summary of the physical and material properties of relevant bio-colloids and link their native composition (constituent particles, solvent, and concentrations) to the patterns emerging due to drying. We specifically examined the drying patterns generated by passive bio-colloids (e.g., DNA, globular, fibrous, composite proteins, plasma, serum, blood, urine, tears, and saliva). This article highlights how the emerging morphological patterns are influenced by the nature of the biological entities and the solvent, micro- and global environmental conditions (temperature and relative humidity), and substrate attributes like wettability. Crucially, correlations between emergent patterns and the initial droplet compositions enable the detection of potential clinical abnormalities when compared with the patterns of drying droplets of healthy control samples, offering a blueprint for the diagnosis of the type and stage of a specific disease (or disorder). Recent experimental investigations of pattern formation in the bio-mimetic and salivary drying droplets in the context of COVID-19 are also presented. We further summarized the role of biologically active agents in the drying process, including bacteria, algae, spermatozoa, and nematodes, and discussed the coupling between self-propulsion and hydrodynamics during the drying process. We wrap up the review by highlighting the role of cross-scale in situ experimental techniques for quantifying sub-micron to micro-scale features and the critical role of cross-disciplinary approaches (e.g., experimental and image processing techniques with machine learning algorithms) to quantify and predict the drying-induced features. We conclude the review with a perspective on the next generation of research and applications based on drying droplets, ultimately enabling innovative solutions and quantitative tools to investigate this exciting interface of physics, biology, data sciences, and machine learning.

Using total RNA quality metrics for time since deposition estimates in degrading bloodstains

The physicochemical changes occurring in biomolecules in degrading bloodstains can be used to approximate the time since deposition (TSD) of bloodstains. This would provide forensic scientists with critical information regarding the timeline of the events involving bloodshed. Our study aims to quantify the timewise degradation trends and temperature dependence found in total RNA from bloodstains without the use of amplification, expanding the scope of the RNA TSD research which has traditionally targeted mRNA and miRNA. Bovine blood with ACD-A anticoagulant was deposited and stored in plastic microcentrifuge tubes at 21 or 4°C and tested over different timepoints spanning 1 week. Total RNA was extracted from each sample and analyzed using automated high sensitivity gel electrophoresis. Nine RNA metrics were visually assessed and quantified using linear and mixed models. The RNA Integrity Number equivalent (RINe) and DV200 were not influenced by the addition of anticoagulant and demonstrated strong negative trends over time. The RINe model fit was high (R²  = 0.60), and while including the biological replicate as a random effect increased the fit for all RNA metrics, no significant differences were found between biological replicates stored at the same temperature for the RINe and DV200. This suggests that these standardized metrics can be directly compared between scenarios and individuals, with DV200 having an inflection point at approximately 28 h. This study provides a novel approach for blood TSD research, revealing metrics that are not affected by inter-individual variation, and improving our understanding of the rapid RNA degradation occurring in bloodstains.

Hierarchical Exploration of Drying Patterns Formed in Drops Containing Lysozyme, PBS, and Liquid Crystals

Biological systems, by nature, are highly complex. These systems exhibit diverse hierarchical spatial and temporal features when driven far from equilibrium. The generated features are susceptible to the initial conditions that largely depend on vast parameter space. Extracting information on their properties and behavior thus becomes far too complex. This work seeks to examine the drying kinetics of the drops containing a globular protein (xlysozyme (Lys)), phosphate buffer saline (PBS), and thermotropic liquid crystal (LCs). The drying evolution and the morphological crack patterns of these drops are examined using high-resolution microscopy, textural image analysis, and statistical methods. This study observes that the textural parameters can identify the (i) phase separation of the salts present in the PBS and (ii) the LCs’ birefringence during the drying evolution. This birefringence activities of the LCs slow down when the initial PBS concentration is increased from 0.25 to 1× despite using a fixed volume of LCs. To comprehend such a surprising effect, the combinations of (i) Lys+PBS and (ii) PBS+LCs are thoroughly examined. A phase diagram is established as a function of initial concentrations of Lys and PBS. The scanning electron microscopic images of Lys+PBS reveal that the tuning between lysozyme and salt concentrations in PBS plays a significant role in determining the morphological patterns. The Lys drops with and without LCs exhibit two distinct regions: the peripheral ring (“coffee-ring”) and the central ones. This phase-separated ring formation indicates that the film containing Lys and salts might have formed on top of these LCs in the central region, which reduces the optical response (birefringence) of LCs. A physical mechanism is proposed in this paper to anticipate the redistributions of LCs in a multi-component system such as Lys+PBS+LCs.

Patterns in Dried Droplets to Detect Unfolded BSA

The morphological analysis of patterns in dried droplets has allowed the generation of efficient techniques for the detection of molecules of medical interest. However, the effectiveness of this method to reveal the coexistence of macromolecules of the same species, but different conformational states, is still unknown. To address this problem, we present an experimental study on pattern formation in dried droplets of bovine serum albumin (BSA), in folded and unfolded conformational states, in saline solution (NaCl). Folded proteins produce a well-defined coffee ring and crystal patterns all over the dry droplet. Depending on the NaCl concentration, the crystals can be small, large, elongated, entangled, or dense. Optical microscopy reveals that the relative concentration of unfolded proteins determines the morphological characteristics of deposits. At a low relative concentration of unfolded proteins (above 2%), small amorphous aggregates emerge in the deposits, while at high concentrations (above 16%), the "eye-like pattern", a large aggregate surrounded by a uniform coating, is produced. The radial intensity profile, the mean pixel intensity, and the entropy make it possible to characterize the patterns in dried droplets. We prove that it is possible to achieve 100% accuracy in identifying 4% of unfolded BSA contained in a protein solution.

Evaluation of Viscosity Dependence of the Critical Meniscus Height with Optical Fiber Sensors

Conventional means of data extraction using optical fiber interrogators are not adequate for fast-paced detection of a target parameter. In this instance, the relationship between the critical meniscus heights (CMH) of several liquids to the extraction speed of a rod submerged in them, have been analyzed. A limitation of a previous interrogator used for the purpose had been light absorption by the liquid due to the used bandwidth of the readily-available light source, i.e., C-band. The newly proposed technique addresses this limitation by utilizing a broadband light source instead, with a Si-photodetector and an Arduino. In addition, the Arduino is capable of extracting data at a relatively faster rate with respect to the conventional optical interrogator. The use of a different operational wavelength (850 nm instead of 1550 nm) increased the r² and the sensitivity of the sensor. The new setup can measure surface chemistry properties, with the advantage of being comparatively cheaper than the conventionally available interrogator units, thereby providing a suitable alternative to conventional measurement techniques of liquid surface properties, while reducing material waste, i.e., in terms of the required volume for detection of a target parameter, through the use of optical fiber.

The Effect of Substrate Temperature on the Evaporative Behaviour and Desiccation Patterns of Foetal Bovine Serum Drops

The drying of bio-fluid drops results in the formation of complex patterns, which are morphologically and topographically affected by environmental conditions including temperature. We examine the effect of substrate temperatures between 20 °C and 40 °C, on the evaporative dynamics and dried deposits of foetal bovine serum (FBS) drops. The deposits consist of four zones: a peripheral protein ring, a zone of protein structures, a protein gel, and a central crystalline zone. We investigate the link between the evaporative behaviour, final deposit volume, and cracking. Drops dried at higher substrate temperatures in the range of 20 °C to 35 °C produce deposits of lower final volume. We attribute this to a lower water content and a more brittle gel in the deposits formed at higher temperatures. However, the average deposit volume is higher for drops dried at 40 °C compared to drops dried at 35 °C, indicating protein denaturation. Focusing on the protein ring, we show that the ring volume decreases with increasing temperature from 20 °C to 35 °C, whereas the number of cracks increases due to faster water evaporation. Interestingly, for deposits of drops dried at 40 °C, the ring volume increases, but the number of cracks also increases, suggesting an interplay between water evaporation and increasing strain in the deposits due to protein denaturation.

Effects of substrate temperature on patterns produced by dried droplets of proteins

Rapid diagnosis provides better clinical management of patients, helps control possible outbreaks, and increases survival. The study of deposits produced by the evaporation of droplets is a useful tool in the diagnosis of some health problems. With the aim to improve diagnostic time in clinical practice where we use the evaporation of droplets, we explored the effects of substrate temperature on pattern formation of dried droplets in globular protein solutions. Three deposit groups were observed: "functional" patterns (from 25 to 37 ^∘C), "transition" patterns (from 44 to 50 ^∘C), and "eye" patterns (from 58 to 63 ^∘C). The dried droplets of the first two groups show a ring structure ("coffee-ring") that confines a great diversity of aggregates such as needle-like structures, tiny blade-shape crystals, highly symmetrical crystallization patterns, and amorphous salt aggregates. In contrast, the "eye" patterns are deposits with a large inner aggregate surrounded by a coffee ring, and they can appear from the evaporation of droplets in protein binary mixtures and blood serum. Interestingly, the unfolding proteins correlates with the formation of "eye" patterns. We measured stain diameter, "coffee-ring" thickness, radial density profile, and entropy computed by GLCM-statistics to quantify the structural differences among deposit groups. We found that "functional" patterns are structurally indistinguishable among them, but they are clearly different from elements of the other deposit groups. An exponential decay function describes pattern formation time as a function of substrate temperature, which is independent from protein concentration. Patterns formation at 32 ^∘C takes place up to 63% less time and preserves the structural characteristics of dried droplets in proteins formed at room temperature. Therefore, we argue that droplet evaporation at this substrate temperature could be an excellent candidate to make a more efficient diagnosis based on droplet evaporation of biofluids.