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Shreesha L, Levin M. Stress sharing as cognitive glue for collective intelligences: A computational model of stress as a coordinator for morphogenesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2024; 731:150396. [PMID: 39018974 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/11/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024]
Abstract
Individual cells have numerous competencies in physiological and metabolic spaces. However, multicellular collectives can reliably navigate anatomical morphospace towards much larger, reliable endpoints. Understanding the robustness and control properties of this process is critical for evolutionary developmental biology, bioengineering, and regenerative medicine. One mechanism that has been proposed for enabling individual cells to coordinate toward specific morphological outcomes is the sharing of stress (where stress is a physiological parameter that reflects the current amount of error in the context of a homeostatic loop). Here, we construct and analyze a multiscale agent-based model of morphogenesis in which we quantitatively examine the impact of stress sharing on the ability to reach target morphology. We found that stress sharing improves the morphogenetic efficiency of multicellular collectives; populations with stress sharing reached anatomical targets faster. Moreover, stress sharing influenced the future fate of distant cells in the multi-cellular collective, enhancing cells' movement and their radius of influence, consistent with the hypothesis that stress sharing works to increase cohesiveness of collectives. During development, anatomical goal states could not be inferred from observation of stress states, revealing the limitations of knowledge of goals by an extern observer outside the system itself. Taken together, our analyses support an important role for stress sharing in natural and engineered systems that seek robust large-scale behaviors to emerge from the activity of their competent components.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Levin
- Department of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, MA, 02155, USA; Allen Discovery Center at Tufts University, Medford, MA, 02155, USA; Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.
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2
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Tukaj S. Dual role of autoantibodies to heat shock proteins in autoimmune diseases. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1421528. [PMID: 38903496 PMCID: PMC11187000 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1421528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Autoimmune diseases are characterized by the recognition of self-antigens (autoantigens) by immune system cells. Loss of immunological tolerance may lead to the generation of autoantibodies and, consequently, tissue damage. It has already been proven that highly immunogenic bacterial and autologous extracellular heat shock proteins (eHsps) interact with immune cells of the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system. The latter interactions may stimulate a humoral (auto)immune response and lead to the generation of anti-Hsps (auto)antibodies. Although circulating levels of anti-Hsps autoantibodies are often elevated in patients suffering from multiple inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, their role in the development of pathological conditions is not fully established. This mini-review presents the dual role of anti-Hsps autoantibodies - protective or pathogenic - in the context of the development of selected autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Tukaj
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
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3
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Ding X, Qiu Y, Wu G, Li S, Cai M, Liang Y, Li D, Luo X, Meng J, Yang R, Cao Y, Gao F, Xue Y, Zou F, Zou M. l-thyroxine attenuates extracellular Hsp90α-induced vascular endothelial calcification in diabetes mellitus, as revealed by parallel metabolic profiles. Atherosclerosis 2024; 392:117527. [PMID: 38583286 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2024.117527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Diabetic atherosclerotic vascular disease is characterized by extensive vascular calcification. However, an elevated blood glucose level alone does not explain this pathogenesis. We investigated the metabolic markers underlying diabetic atherosclerosis and whether extracellular Hsp90α (eHsp90α) triggers vascular endothelial calcification in this particular metabolic environment. METHODS A parallel human/animal model metabolomics approach was used. We analyzed 40 serum samples collected from 24 patients with atherosclerosis and from the STZ-induced ApoE-/- mouse model. A multivariate statistical analysis of the data was performed, and mouse aortic tissue was collected for the assessment of plaque formation. In vitro, the effects of eHsp90α on endothelial cell calcification were assessed by serum analysis, Western blotting and immunoelectron microscopy. RESULTS Diabetic ApoE-/- mice showed more severe plaque lesions and calcification damage. Stearamide, oleamide, l-thyroxine, l-homocitrulline and l-citrulline are biomarkers of diabetic ASVD; l-thyroxine was downregulated in both groups, and the thyroid sensitivity index was correlated with serum Hsp90α concentration. In vitro studies showed that eHsp90α increased Runx2 expression in endothelial cells through the LRP1 receptor. l-thyroxine reduced the increase in Runx2 levels caused by eHsp90α and affected the distribution and expression of LRP1 through hydrogen bonding with glutamine at position 1054 in the extracellular segment of LRP1. CONCLUSIONS This study provides a mechanistic link between characteristic serum metabolites and diabetic atherosclerosis and thus offers new insight into the role of extracellular Hsp90α in promoting vascular calcification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Ding
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, Department of Occupational Health and Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan Qiu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, Department of Occupational Health and Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guozhen Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, Department of Occupational Health and Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuxian Li
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Mengyi Cai
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yongqi Liang
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dongling Li
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiangrong Luo
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jianfu Meng
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Run Yang
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ying Cao
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fang Gao
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yaoming Xue
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fei Zou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, Department of Occupational Health and Medicine, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Mengchen Zou
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.
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Fatani A, Wu X, Gbotsyo Y, MacRae TH, Song X, Tan J. ArHsp90 is important in stress tolerance and embryo development of the brine shrimp, Artemia franciscana. Cell Stress Chaperones 2024; 29:285-299. [PMID: 38428516 PMCID: PMC10972811 DOI: 10.1016/j.cstres.2024.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 03/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Females of the extremophile crustacean, Artemia franciscana, either release motile nauplii via the ovoviviparous pathway or encysted embryos (cysts) via the oviparous pathway. Cysts contain an abundant amount of the ATP-independent small heat shock protein that contributes to stress tolerance and embryo development, however, little is known of the role of ATP-dependent molecular chaperone, heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) in the two processes. In this study, a hsp90 was cloned from A. franciscana. Characteristic domains of ArHsp90 were simulated from the deduced amino acid sequence, and 3D structures of ArHsp90 and Hsp90s of organisms from different groups were aligned. RNA interference was then employed to characterize ArHsp90 in A. franciscana nauplii and cysts. The partial knockdown of ArHsp90 slowed the development of nauplius-destined, but not cyst-destined embryos. ArHsp90 knockdown also reduced the survival and stress tolerance of nauplii newly released from A. franciscana females. Although the reduction of ArHsp90 had no effect on the development of diapause-destined embryos, the resulting cysts displayed reduced tolerance to desiccation and low temperature, two stresses normally encountered by A. franciscana in its natural environment. The results reveal that Hsp90 contributes to the development, growth, and stress tolerance of A. franciscana, an organism of practical importance as a feed source in aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afnan Fatani
- Infection Prevention and Control Department, East Jeddah Hospital, Ministry of Health, Al Sulaymaniyah, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Xiangyang Wu
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology, School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Yayra Gbotsyo
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Thomas H MacRae
- Department of Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Xiaojun Song
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology, School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, Shandong, China
| | - Jiabo Tan
- Laboratory of Comparative Immunology, School of Marine Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, Shandong, China.
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Conrad NJ, Heckler EP, Lee BJ, Hill GW, Flood TR, Wheeler LEV, Costello R, Walker EF, Gillum TL, Willems MET, Kuennen MR. New Zealand blackcurrant extract modulates the heat shock response in men during exercise in hot ambient conditions. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024:10.1007/s00421-024-05439-w. [PMID: 38448730 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05439-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine if 7d of New Zealand blackcurrant (NZBC) extract alters the heat shock, inflammatory and apoptotic response during prolonged exertional-heat stress. METHODS Ten men (Age: 29 ± 2 years, Stature: 1.82 ± 0.02 m, Mass: 80.3 ± 2.7 kg, V̇O2max: 56 ± 2 mL·kg-1·min-1) ingested two capsules of CurraNZ™ (NZBC extract: 210 mg anthocyanins·day-1) or PLACEBO for 7d prior to 1 h treadmill run (65% V̇O2max) in hot ambient conditions (34 °C/40% RH). Blood samples were collected before (Pre), immediately after (Post), 1 h after (1-Post), and 4 h after (4-Post) exercise. Heat shock proteins (HSP90, HSP70, HSP32) were measured in plasma. HSP and protein markers of inflammatory capacity (TLR4, NF-κB) and apoptosis (BAX/BCL-2, Caspase 9) were measured in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). RESULTS eHSP32 was elevated at baseline in NZBC(+ 31%; p < 0.001). In PLACEBO HSP32 content in PBMC was elevated at 4-Post(+ 98%; p = 0.002), whereas in NZBC it fell at Post(- 45%; p = 0.030) and 1-Post(- 48%; p = 0.026). eHSP70 was increased at Post in PLACEBO(+ 55.6%, p = 0.001) and NZBC (+ 50.7%, p = 0.010). eHSP90 was increased at Post(+ 77.9%, p < 0.001) and 1-Post(+ 73.2%, p < 0.001) in PLACEBO, with similar increases being shown in NZBC (+ 49.0%, p = 0.006 and + 66.2%, p = 0.001; respectively). TLR4 and NF-κB were both elevated in NZBC at PRE(+ 54%, p = 0.003 and + 57%, p = 0.004; respectively). Main effects of study condition were also shown for BAX/BCL-2(p = 0.025) and Caspase 9 (p = 0.043); both were higher in NZBC. CONCLUSION 7d of NZBC extract supplementation increased eHSP32 and PBMC HSP32 content. It also increased inflammatory and apoptotic markers in PBMC, suggesting that NZBC supports the putative inflammatory response that accompanies exertional-heat stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J Conrad
- Department of Health & Human Performance, High Point University, One University Parkway, High Point, NC, 27268, USA
| | - Emerson P Heckler
- Department of Health & Human Performance, High Point University, One University Parkway, High Point, NC, 27268, USA
| | - Ben J Lee
- Occupational and Environmental Physiology Group, Centre for Physical Activity, Sport and Exercise Science, Coventry University, Coventry, England
- Institute of Applied Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Garrett W Hill
- Department of Health & Human Performance, High Point University, One University Parkway, High Point, NC, 27268, USA
| | - Tessa R Flood
- Institute of Sport, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
- Institute of Applied Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Lucy E V Wheeler
- Institute of Applied Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Rianne Costello
- Global Food Security Programme, Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, Swindon, UK
| | - Ella F Walker
- Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
| | - Trevor L Gillum
- Department of Kinesiology, California Baptist University, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - Mark E T Willems
- Institute of Applied Sciences, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
| | - Matthew R Kuennen
- Department of Health & Human Performance, High Point University, One University Parkway, High Point, NC, 27268, USA.
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Sitko K, Kárpáti S, Węgrzyn G, Mincewicz G, Trzeciak M, Kasperkiewicz M, Tukaj S. Differences in the detection of circulating Hsp90 alpha between patients with atopic dermatitis and dermatitis herpetiformis. Front Med (Lausanne) 2024; 10:1327144. [PMID: 38249962 PMCID: PMC10796992 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1327144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Heat shock protein 90 alpha (Hsp90α) is one of the key intra- and extracellular chaperones responsible for the biological activity of various signaling molecules that are involved in (auto)immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Recent epidemiologic data suggest that patients with atopic dermatitis (AD) are at risk for several autoimmune diseases, including dermatitis herpetiformis (DH), an extraintestinal manifestation of celiac disease (CD). In addition, pruritic diseases such as AD may be confused clinically with DH. In this study, we aimed to determine the role of circulating Hsp90α in patients with AD in relation to patients with DH, CD, and healthy controls. Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, levels of circulating Hsp90α were determined in serum samples derived from patients with AD (n = 31), DH (n = 26), CD (n = 15), and healthy controls (n = 55). Although serum concentrations of Hsp90α were similar between patients with DH, CD, and healthy controls, we found that serum levels of Hsp90α were significantly higher (mean value of 5.08-fold; p < 0.0001) in patients with AD when compared to patients with DH. A cutoff value calculated as 2 × standard deviation above the mean concentration of Hsp90α in DH patients revealed that 83.9% (26/31) of AD patients were Hsp90α positive, whereas none of the DH patients (0/26) displayed such a positivity. This preliminary study suggests a distinct role for extracellular Hsp90α in the pathogenesis of AD compared to DH and its potential use in distinguishing AD from DH. Nevertheless, the potential role of the evaluation of extracellular Hsp90α for distinguishing between AD and DH is at present speculative and requires further and careful observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Sitko
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Sarolta Kárpáti
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Dermatooncology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Grzegorz Węgrzyn
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Mincewicz
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Magdalena Trzeciak
- Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, Medical University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Michael Kasperkiewicz
- Department of Dermatology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Stefan Tukaj
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
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7
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Chiosis G, Digwal CS, Trepel JB, Neckers L. Structural and functional complexity of HSP90 in cellular homeostasis and disease. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol 2023; 24:797-815. [PMID: 37524848 PMCID: PMC10592246 DOI: 10.1038/s41580-023-00640-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) is a chaperone with vital roles in regulating proteostasis, long recognized for its function in protein folding and maturation. A view is emerging that identifies HSP90 not as one protein that is structurally and functionally homogeneous but, rather, as a protein that is shaped by its environment. In this Review, we discuss evidence of multiple structural forms of HSP90 in health and disease, including homo-oligomers and hetero-oligomers, also termed epichaperomes, and examine the impact of stress, post-translational modifications and co-chaperones on their formation. We describe how these variations influence context-dependent functions of HSP90 as well as its interaction with other chaperones, co-chaperones and proteins, and how this structural complexity of HSP90 impacts and is impacted by its interaction with small molecule modulators. We close by discussing recent developments regarding the use of HSP90 inhibitors in cancer and how our new appreciation of the structural and functional heterogeneity of HSP90 invites a re-evaluation of how we discover and implement HSP90 therapeutics for disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Chiosis
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY, USA.
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Chander S Digwal
- Chemical Biology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jane B Trepel
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Len Neckers
- Urologic Oncology Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Singh P, Ramanathan V, Zhang Y, Georgakoudi I, Jay DG. Extracellular Hsp90 Binds to and Aligns Collagen-1 to Enhance Breast Cancer Cell Invasiveness. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:5237. [PMID: 37958410 PMCID: PMC10648158 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15215237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer cell-secreted eHsp90 binds and activates proteins in the tumor microenvironment crucial in cancer invasion. Therefore, targeting eHsp90 could inhibit invasion, preventing metastasis-the leading cause of cancer-related mortality. Previous eHsp90 studies have solely focused on its role in cancer invasion through the 2D basement membrane (BM), a form of extracellular matrix (ECM) that lines the epithelial compartment. However, its role in cancer invasion through the 3D Interstitial Matrix (IM), an ECM beyond the BM, remains unexplored. Using a Collagen-1 binding assay and second harmonic generation (SHG) imaging, we demonstrate that eHsp90 directly binds and aligns Collagen-1 fibers, the primary component of IM. Furthermore, we show that eHsp90 enhances Collagen-1 invasion of breast cancer cells in the Transwell assay. Using Hsp90 conformation mutants and inhibitors, we established that the Hsp90 dimer binds to Collagen-1 via its N-domain. We also demonstrated that while Collagen-1 binding and alignment are not influenced by Hsp90's ATPase activity attributed to the N-domain, its open conformation is crucial for increasing Collagen-1 alignment and promoting breast cancer cell invasion. These findings unveil a novel role for eHsp90 in invasion through the IM and offer valuable mechanistic insights into potential therapeutic approaches for inhibiting Hsp90 to suppress invasion and metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pragya Singh
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA; (P.S.); (I.G.)
| | - Varshini Ramanathan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University School of Engineering, Medford, MA 02155, USA; (V.R.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Yang Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University School of Engineering, Medford, MA 02155, USA; (V.R.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Irene Georgakoudi
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA; (P.S.); (I.G.)
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University School of Engineering, Medford, MA 02155, USA; (V.R.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Daniel G. Jay
- Department of Developmental, Molecular and Chemical Biology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02111, USA; (P.S.); (I.G.)
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Petrenko V, Vrublevskaya V, Bystrova M, Masulis I, Kopylova E, Skarga Y, Zhmurina M, Morenkov O. Proliferation, migration, and resistance to oxidative and thermal stresses of HT1080 cells with knocked out genes encoding Hsp90α and Hsp90β. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 674:62-68. [PMID: 37406487 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.06.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) fulfils essential housekeeping functions in the cell associated with the folding, stabilization, and turnover of various proteins. In mammals, there exist two Hsp90 isoforms, stress-inducible Hsp90α and constitutively expressed Hsp90β. In an attempt to identify cellular processes dependent on Hsp90α and Hsp90β, we generated a panel of clones of human fibrosarcoma HT1080 cells with the knocked out HSP90AA1 or HSP90AB1 genes encoding, respectively, Hsp90α and Hsp90β. The knockout of the HSP90AA1 and HSP90AB1 genes practically did not affect cell proliferation and resistance to thermal shock and oxidative stress. The loss of Hsp90α in Hsp90α-null cell clones also did not impair cell migration, while the migration of the Hsp90β-null cell clones was prominently reduced as compared to parent HT1080 cells. This indicated the necessity of Hsp90β for efficient basal migration of HT1080 cells whereas Hsp90α seems to be dispensable for this process. The knockout of one Hsp90 isoform was invariably accompanied by an increase in the level of the other Hsp90 isoform by 30-50%, which partly or fully compensated for a decrease in the total level of Hsp90. Thus, we demonstrated the dispensability of Hsp90α and Hsp90β for HT1080 cells in several cellular processes under normal and stress conditions, which suggested the participation of the two Hsp90 isoforms in the same biological processes and full or at least partial functional substitution of one Hsp90 isoform by the other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktoria Petrenko
- Institute of Cell Biophysics, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Pushchino, Moscow Region, 1422290, Russia
| | - Veronika Vrublevskaya
- Institute of Cell Biophysics, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Pushchino, Moscow Region, 1422290, Russia
| | - Marina Bystrova
- Institute of Cell Biophysics, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Pushchino, Moscow Region, 1422290, Russia
| | - Irina Masulis
- Institute of Cell Biophysics, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Pushchino, Moscow Region, 1422290, Russia
| | - Elizaveta Kopylova
- Institute of Cell Biophysics, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Pushchino, Moscow Region, 1422290, Russia
| | - Yuri Skarga
- Institute of Cell Biophysics, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Pushchino, Moscow Region, 1422290, Russia
| | - Mariya Zhmurina
- Institute of Cell Biophysics, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Pushchino, Moscow Region, 1422290, Russia
| | - Oleg Morenkov
- Institute of Cell Biophysics, Federal Research Center "Pushchino Scientific Center for Biological Research of the Russian Academy of Sciences", Pushchino, Moscow Region, 1422290, Russia.
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Reynolds T, Blagg BSJ. Synthesis and Validation of the First Cell-Impermeable Hsp90α-Selective Inhibitors. ACS Med Chem Lett 2023; 14:1250-1256. [PMID: 37736193 PMCID: PMC10510499 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Hsp90α is an isoform of the heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) family of molecular chaperones and mediates the folding and activation of ∼400 client proteins. However, inhibition of intracellular Hsp90α has caused detrimental side effects and significantly hindered the clinical development of Hsp90 inhibitors. As an alternative strategy, 14 Hsp90α-selective inhibitors were synthesized to introduce permanently charged moieties onto the solvent-exposed portion of the Hsp90α binding site to produce cell-impermeable extracellular Hsp90α-selective inhibitors. The resulting lead compounds were cell-permeable dimethylamine 14 (NDNA3), with an affinity of 0.51 μM for Hsp90α and >196-fold selectivity over the other Hsp90 isoforms, and cell-impermeable quaternary ammonium 17 (NDNA4), with an affinity of 0.34 μM for Hsp90α and >294-fold selectivity. The permanently charged analogs were determined to have low membrane permeability, to be nontoxic against Ovcar-8 and MCF-10A cells, to avoid disruption of hERG channel maturation, and not to induce the heat shock response or Hsp90α-dependent client degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyelor
S. Reynolds
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The University of Notre Dame, 305 McCourtney Hall, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Brian S. J. Blagg
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, The University of Notre Dame, 305 McCourtney Hall, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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11
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Fukawa M, Shirai R, Torii T, Nakata K, Fukatsu S, Sato T, Homma K, Miyamoto Y, Yamauchi J. Extracellular HSPA5 is autocrinally involved in the regulation of neuronal process elongation. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 664:50-58. [PMID: 37137223 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2023.04.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms by which neuronal processes grow are extremely complicated, involving fine-tuned regulation of extracellular and intracellular signals. It remains to be elucidated which molecules are contained in the regulation. Herein, we report for the first time that heat shock protein family A member 5 (HSPA5, also called immunoglobulin heavy chain binding endoplasmic reticulum [ER] protein [BiP]) is secreted from mouse primary dorsal neuronal ganglion (DRG) cells or neuronal cell line N1E-115, a frequently used neuronal differentiation model. Supporting these results, HSPA5 protein was co-localized not only with ER antigen KDEL but also with intracellular vesicles such as Rab11-positive secretory vesicles. Unexpectedly, addition of HSPA5 inhibited elongation of neuronal processes, whereas neutralization of extracellular HSPA5 with the antibodies elongated processes, characterizing extracellular HSPA5 as a negative regulator of neuronal differentiation. Treatment of cells with neutralizing antibodies for low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) did not have significant effects on process elongation, whereas LDLR-related protein 1 (LRP1) antibodies promoted differentiation, implying that LRP1 may act as a receptor candidate for HSPA5. Interestingly, extracellular HSPA5 was greatly decreased following treatment with tunicamycin, an ER stress inducer, illustrating that the ability to form neuronal processes could be preserved, even under stress. These results suggest that neuronal HSPA5 itself is secreted to contribute to inhibitory effects on neuronal cell morphological differentiation and can be included on the list of extracellular signaling molecules negatively controlling differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miku Fukawa
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0392, Japan
| | - Remina Shirai
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0392, Japan
| | - Tomohiro Torii
- Laboratory of Ion Channel Pathophysiology, Doshisha University Graduate School of Brain Science, Kyotanabe, Kyoto, 610-0394, Japan
| | - Kenta Nakata
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0392, Japan
| | - Shoya Fukatsu
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0392, Japan
| | - Takanari Sato
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0392, Japan
| | - Keiichi Homma
- Department of Life Science and Informatics, Maebashi Institute of Technology, Maebashi, Gunma, 371-0816, Japan
| | - Yuki Miyamoto
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurology, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Hachioji, Tokyo, 192-0392, Japan; Department of Pharmacology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, Setagaya, Tokyo, 157-8535, Japan
| | - Junji Yamauchi
- Department of Pharmacology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, Setagaya, Tokyo, 157-8535, Japan; Diabetic Neuropathy Project, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Medical Science, Setagaya, Tokyo, 156-8506, Japan.
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12
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An Editorial on the Special Issue ‘Hsp90 Structure, Mechanism and Disease’. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13030547. [PMID: 36979482 PMCID: PMC10045984 DOI: 10.3390/biom13030547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Hsp90 is known for its role in the activation of an eclectic set of regulatory and signal transduction proteins [...]
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13
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van Oosten-Hawle P. Organismal Roles of Hsp90. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13020251. [PMID: 36830620 PMCID: PMC9952938 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) is a highly conserved molecular chaperone that assists in the maturation of many client proteins involved in cellular signal transduction. As a regulator of cellular signaling processes, it is vital for the maintenance of cellular proteostasis and adaptation to environmental stresses. Emerging research shows that Hsp90 function in an organism goes well beyond intracellular proteostasis. In metazoans, Hsp90, as an environmentally responsive chaperone, is involved in inter-tissue stress signaling responses that coordinate and safeguard cell nonautonomous proteostasis and organismal health. In this way, Hsp90 has the capacity to influence evolution and aging, and effect behavioral responses to facilitate tissue-defense systems that ensure organismal survival. In this review, I summarize the literature on the organismal roles of Hsp90 uncovered in multicellular organisms, from plants to invertebrates and mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricija van Oosten-Hawle
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC 28223, USA
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14
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Scalia F, Lo Bosco G, Paladino L, Vitale AM, Noori L, Conway de Macario E, Macario AJL, Bucchieri F, Cappello F, Lo Celso F. Structural and Dynamic Disturbances Revealed by Molecular Dynamics Simulations Predict the Impact on Function of CCT5 Chaperonin Mutations Associated with Rare Severe Distal Neuropathies. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032018. [PMID: 36768350 PMCID: PMC9917133 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in genes encoding molecular chaperones, for instance the genes encoding the subunits of the chaperonin CCT (chaperonin containing TCP-1, also known as TRiC), are associated with rare neurodegenerative disorders. Using a classical molecular dynamics approach, we investigated the occurrence of conformational changes and differences in physicochemical properties of the CCT5 mutations His147Arg and Leu224Val associated with a sensory and a motor distal neuropathy, respectively. The apical domain of both variants was substantially but differently affected by the mutations, although these were in other domains. The distribution of hydrogen bonds and electrostatic potentials on the surface of the mutant subunits differed from the wild-type molecule. Structural and dynamic analyses, together with our previous experimental data, suggest that genetic mutations may cause different changes in the protein-binding capacity of CCT5 variants, presumably within both hetero- and/or homo-oligomeric complexes. Further investigations are necessary to elucidate the molecular pathogenic pathways of the two variants that produce the two distinct phenotypes. The data and clinical observations by us and others indicate that CCT chaperonopathies are more frequent than currently believed and should be investigated in patients with neuropathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Scalia
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (BiND), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
- Euro-Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology (IEMEST), 90139 Palermo, Italy
- Correspondence: (F.S.); (F.C.)
| | - Giosuè Lo Bosco
- Euro-Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology (IEMEST), 90139 Palermo, Italy
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Palermo, 90123 Palermo, Italy
| | - Letizia Paladino
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (BiND), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
- Euro-Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology (IEMEST), 90139 Palermo, Italy
| | - Alessandra Maria Vitale
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (BiND), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
- Euro-Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology (IEMEST), 90139 Palermo, Italy
| | - Leila Noori
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (BiND), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Science, Tehran 1417653911, Iran
| | - Everly Conway de Macario
- Euro-Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology (IEMEST), 90139 Palermo, Italy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland at Baltimore—Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology (IMET), Baltimore, MD 21202, USA
| | - Alberto J. L. Macario
- Euro-Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology (IEMEST), 90139 Palermo, Italy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Maryland at Baltimore—Institute of Marine and Environmental Technology (IMET), Baltimore, MD 21202, USA
| | - Fabio Bucchieri
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (BiND), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Francesco Cappello
- Department of Biomedicine, Neuroscience and Advanced Diagnostics (BiND), University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
- Euro-Mediterranean Institute of Science and Technology (IEMEST), 90139 Palermo, Italy
- Correspondence: (F.S.); (F.C.)
| | - Fabrizio Lo Celso
- Department of Physics and Chemistry—Emilio Segrè, University of Palermo, 90128 Palermo, Italy
- Ionic Liquids Laboratory, Institute of Structure of Matter, Italian National Research Council (ISM-CNR), 00133 Rome, Italy
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15
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Chang C, Tang X, Woodley DT, Chen M, Li W. The Distinct Assignments for Hsp90α and Hsp90β: More Than Skin Deep. Cells 2023; 12:277. [PMID: 36672211 PMCID: PMC9857327 DOI: 10.3390/cells12020277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
For decades, the undisputable definition of the cytosolic Hsp90α and hsp90β proteins being evolutionarily conserved, ATP-driven chaperones has ruled basic research and clinical trials. The results of recent studies, however, have fundamentally challenged this paradigm, not to mention the spectacular failures of the paradigm-based clinical trials in cancer and beyond. We now know that Hsp90α and Hsp90β are both ubiquitously expressed in all cell types but assigned for distinct and irreplaceable functions. Hsp90β is essential during mouse development and Hsp90α only maintains male reproductivity in adult mice. Neither Hsp90β nor Hsp90α could substitute each other under these biological processes. Hsp90β alone maintains cell survival in culture and Hsp90α cannot substitute it. Hsp90α also has extracellular functions under stress and Hsp90β does not. The dramatic difference in the steady-state expression of Hsp90 in different mouse organs is due to the variable expressions of Hsp90α. The lowest expression of Hsp90 is less than 2% and the highest expression of Hsp90 is 9% among non-transformed cell lines. The two linker regions only take up less than 5% of the Hsp90 proteins, but harbor 21% of the total amino acid substitutions, i.e., 40% in comparison to the 86% overall amino acid homology. A full understanding of the distinctions between Hsp90α and Hsp90β could lead to new, safe and effective therapeutics targeting Hsp90 in human disorders such as cancer. This is the first comprehensive review of a comparison between the two cytosolic Hsp90 isoforms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Wei Li
- Department of Dermatology and the Norris Comprehensive Cancer Centre, University of Southern California Keck Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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16
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Tukaj S. Circulating heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) in atopic dermatitis and bullous pemphigoid: is there a link? Cell Stress Chaperones 2022; 27:601-602. [PMID: 36161584 PMCID: PMC9672208 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-022-01298-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Tukaj
- Department of Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Gdańsk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308, Gdańsk, Poland.
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17
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Arkhypov I, Özbay Kurt FG, Bitsch R, Novak D, Petrova V, Lasser S, Hielscher T, Groth C, Lepper A, Hu X, Li W, Utikal J, Altevogt P, Umansky V. HSP90α induces immunosuppressive myeloid cells in melanoma via TLR4 signaling. J Immunother Cancer 2022; 10:jitc-2022-005551. [PMID: 36113897 PMCID: PMC9486388 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2022-005551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tumor cells modulate host immunity by secreting extracellular vesicles (EV) and soluble factors. Their interactions with myeloid cells lead to the generation of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC), which inhibit the antitumor function of T and NK cells. We demonstrated previously that EV derived from mouse and human melanoma cells induced immunosuppressive activity via increased expression of programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) on myeloid cells that was dependent on the heat-shock protein 90α (HSP90α) in EV. Here, we investigated whether soluble HSP90α could convert monocytes into MDSC. Methods CD14 monocytes were isolated from the peripheral blood of healthy donors, incubated with human recombinant HSP90α (rHSP90α) alone or in the presence of inhibitors of TLR4 signaling and analyzed by flow cytometry. Inhibition of T cell proliferation assay was applied to assess the immunosuppressive function of rHSP90α-treated monocytes. HSP90α levels were measured by ELISA in plasma of patients with advanced melanoma and correlated with clinical outcome. Results We found that the incubation of monocytes with rHSP90α resulted in a strong upregulation of PD-L1 expression, whereas reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) production as well as the expression of arginase-1, ectoenzymes CD39 and CD73 remained unchanged. The PD-L1 upregulation was blocked by anti-TLR4 antibodies and a nuclear factor-κB inhibitor. rHSP90α-treated monocytes displayed the downregulation of HLA-DR expression and acquired the resistance to apoptosis. Moreover, these monocytes were converted into MDSC as indicated by their capacity to inhibit T cell proliferation, which was mediated by TLR4 signaling as well as PD-L1 and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) 1 expression. Higher levels of HSP90α in plasma of patients with melanoma correlated with augmented PD-L1 expression on circulating monocytic (M)-MDSC. Patients with melanoma with high levels of HSP90α displayed shorter progression-free survival (PFS) on the treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Conclusion Our findings demonstrated that soluble rHSP90α increased the resistance of normal human monocytes to apoptosis and converted them into immunosuppressive MDSC via TLR4 signaling that stimulated PD-L1 and IDO-1 expression. Furthermore, patients with melanoma with high concentrations of HSP90α displayed increased PD-L1 expression on M-MDSC and reduced PFS after ICI therapy, suggesting HSP90α as a promising therapeutic target for overcoming immunosuppression in melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ihor Arkhypov
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Feyza Gül Özbay Kurt
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rebekka Bitsch
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Daniel Novak
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Vera Petrova
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Samantha Lasser
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Thomas Hielscher
- Division of Biostatistics, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christopher Groth
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Alisa Lepper
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Xiaoying Hu
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Dermatology and the USC-Norris Comprehensive Cancer Centre, University of Southern California Keck Medical Center, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Jochen Utikal
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Peter Altevogt
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Viktor Umansky
- Skin Cancer Unit, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany .,Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Allergology, University Medical Centre, Ruprecht-Karl University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.,DFKZ-Hector Cancer Institute, University Medical Center Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany.,Mannheim Institute for Innate Immunoscience (MI3), Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany
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