Functionalized Upconversion Nanoparticles for Targeted Labelling of Bladder Cancer Cells

New insight in urological cancer therapy: From epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) to application of nano-biomaterials

A high number of cancer-related deaths (up to 90) are due to metastasis and simple definition of metastasis is new colony formation of tumor cells in a secondary site. In tumor cells, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) stimulates metastasis and invasion, and it is a common characteristic of malignant tumors. Prostate cancer, bladder cancer and renal cancer are three main types of urological tumors that their malignant and aggressive behaviors are due to abnormal proliferation and metastasis. EMT has been well-documented as a mechanism for promoting invasion of tumor cells and in the current review, a special attention is directed towards understanding role of EMT in malignancy, metastasis and therapy response of urological cancers. The invasion and metastatic characteristics of urological tumors enhance due to EMT induction and this is essential for ensuring survival and ability in developing new colonies in neighboring and distant tissues and organs. When EMT induction occurs, malignant behavior of tumor cells enhances and their tend in developing therapy resistance especially chemoresistance promotes that is one of the underlying reasons for therapy failure and patient death. The lncRNAs, microRNAs, eIF5A2, Notch-4 and hypoxia are among common modulators of EMT mechanism in urological tumors. Moreover, anti-tumor compounds such as metformin can be utilized in suppressing malignancy of urological tumors. Besides, genes and epigenetic factors modulating EMT mechanism can be therapeutically targeted for interfering malignancy of urological tumors. Nanomaterials are new emerging agents in urological cancer therapy that they can improve potential of current therapeutics by their targeted delivery to tumor site. The important hallmarks of urological cancers including growth, invasion and angiogenesis can be suppressed by cargo-loaded nanomaterials. Moreover, nanomaterials can improve chemotherapy potential in urological cancer elimination and by providing phototherapy, they mediate synergistic tumor suppression. The clinical application depends on development of biocompatible nanomaterials.

Biomedical applications of solid-binding peptides and proteins

Over the past decades, solid-binding peptides (SBPs) have found multiple applications in materials science. In non-covalent surface modification strategies, solid-binding peptides are a simple and versatile tool for the immobilization of biomolecules on a vast variety of solid surfaces. Especially in physiological environments, SBPs can increase the biocompatibility of hybrid materials and offer tunable properties for the display of biomolecules with minimal impact on their functionality. All these features make SBPs attractive for the manufacturing of bioinspired materials in diagnostic and therapeutic applications. In particular, biomedical applications such as drug delivery, biosensing, and regenerative therapies have benefited from the introduction of SBPs. Here, we review recent literature on the use of solid-binding peptides and solid-binding proteins in biomedical applications. We focus on applications where modulating the interactions between solid materials and biomolecules is crucial. In this review, we describe solid-binding peptides and proteins, providing background on sequence design and binding mechanism. We then discuss their application on materials relevant for biomedicine (calcium phosphates, silicates, ice crystals, metals, plastics, and graphene). Although the limited characterization of SBPs still represents a challenge for their design and widespread application, our review shows that SBP-mediated bioconjugation can be easily introduced into complex designs and on nanomaterials with very different surface chemistries.

Recent advances in tumor biomarker detection by lanthanide upconversion nanoparticles

Early tumor diagnosis could reliably predict the behavior of tumors and significantly reduce their mortality. Due to the response to early cancerous changes at the molecular or cellular level, tumor biomarkers, including small molecules, proteins, nucleic acids, exosomes, and circulating tumor cells, have been employed as powerful tools for early cancer diagnosis. Therefore, exploring new approaches to detect tumor biomarkers has attracted a great deal of research interest. Lanthanide upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) provide numerous opportunities for bioanalytical applications. When excited by low-energy near-infrared light, UCNPs exhibit several unique properties, such as large anti-Stoke shifts, sharp emission lines, long luminescence lifetimes, resistance to photobleaching, and the absence of autofluorescence. Based on these excellent properties, UCNPs have demonstrated great sensitivity and selectivity in detecting tumor biomarkers. In this review, an overview of recent advances in tumor biomarker detection using UCNPs has been presented. The key aspects of this review include detection mechanisms, applications in vitro and in vivo, challenges, and perspectives of UCNP-based tumor biomarker detection.

Current advances in the application of nanomedicine in bladder cancer

Bladder cancer is the most common malignant tumor of the urinary system, however there are several shortcomings in current diagnostic and therapeutic measures. In terms of diagnosis, the diagnostic tools currently available are not sufficiently sensitive and specific, and imaging is poor, leading to misdiagnosis and missed diagnoses, which can delay treatment. In terms of treatment, current treatment options include surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, gene therapy, and other emerging treatments, as well as combination therapies. However, the main reasons for poor efficacy and side effects during treatment are the lack of specificity and targeting, improper dose control of drugs and photosensitizers, damage to normal cells while attacking cancer cells, and difficulty in delivering siRNA to cancer cells. Nanomedicine is an emerging approach. Among the many nanotechnologies applied in the medical field, nanocarrier-assisted drug delivery systems have attracted extensive research interest due to their great translational value. Well-designed nanoparticles can deliver agents or drugs to specific cell types within target organs through active targeting or passive targeting (enhanced permeability and retention), which allows for imaging, diagnosis, as well as treatment of cancer. This paper reviews advances in the application of various nanocarriers and their advantages and drawbacks, with a focus on their use in the diagnosis and treatment of bladder cancer.

Upconversion nanoparticles as an immunocomplexing agent for selective detection of caspases via sandwich-like supracomplexes

In this study, a nanoparticle-based sandwich-like immunoassay was designed in dispersion medium to precisely detect apoptosis over caspase antibodies in order to overcome the disadvantages of traditional apoptosis determination methods such as high cost, large sampling requirement, and appropriate laboratory and equipment conditions. For this purpose, a complementary particulate system including magnetic (MNPs) and upconversion silica (UC-SiNPs) nanoparticles while immobilizing antibodies (primary antibody to MNPs, secondary antibody to UC-SiNPs) were synthesized and characterized. Optimization and selectivity studies of the complex formed by primary antibody immobilized MNPs with standard caspase proteins were examined by the HPLC system. Within the scope of optimization studies, protein concentrations, optimal duration, and temperature parameters were evaluated. Optimal conditions were determined for pH, initial concentration, time, and temperature as 7.4, 5.6 μg/mL, 45 min, and room temperature, respectively. Furthermore, the adsorption of competitive proteins was investigated in selectivity studies as well. Moreover, the primary antibody immobilized MNPs were treated with standard caspase proteins under optimal conditions; subsequently, they were interacted with secondary antibody immobilized UC-SiNPs to demonstrate the supracomplex formation meanwhile zeta potential/size measurements and fluorescence emission spectrometry analyses were performed. As a result of these analyses, it was observed that the sandwich-like supracomplexes were successfully formed that significantly varied upconversion emission intensities of UC-SiNPs in dependence on the amounts of caspase proteins. Because this approach enabled a quantitative result, the nanoparticle-based sandwich-like immunoassay should be classified as an easy-to-handled, fast, and promising alternative to benchmark apoptosis assays.

Clinical therapies and nano drug delivery systems for urinary bladder cancer

Bladder cancer is the 10^th most commonly occurring malignancy worldwide with a 75% of 5-year survival rate, while it ranks 13^th among the deaths occurring due to cancer. The majority of bladder cancer cases are diagnosed at an early stage and 70% are of non-invasive grade. However, 70% of these cases develop chemoresistance and progress to the muscle invasive stage. Conventional chemotherapy treatments are unsuccessful in curbing chemoresistance, bladder cancer progression while having an adverse side effect, which is mainly due to off-target drug distribution. Therefore, new drug delivery strategies, new therapeutics and therapies or their combination are being explored to develop better treatments. In this regard, nanotechnology has shown promise in the targeted delivery of therapeutics to bladder cancer cells. This review discusses the recent discovery of new therapeutics (chemotherapeutics, immunotherapeutic, and gene therapies), recent developments in the delivery of therapeutics using nano drug delivery systems, and the combination treatments with FDA-approved therapies, i.e., hyperthermia and photodynamic therapy. We also discussed the potential of other novel drug delivery systems that are minimally explored in bladder cancer. Lastly, we discussed the clinical status of therapeutics and therapies for bladder cancer. Overall, this review can provide a summary of available treatments for bladder cancer, and also provide opportunities for further development of drug delivery systems for better management of bladder cancer.

Photoluminescent Nanomaterials for Medical Biotechnology

Creation of various photoluminescent nanomaterials has significantly expanded the arsenal of approaches used in modern biomedicine. Their unique photophysical properties can significantly improve the sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic methods, increase therapy effectiveness, and make a theranostic approach to treatment possible through the application of nanoparticle conjugates with functional macromolecules. The most widely used nanomaterials to date are semiconductor quantum dots; gold nanoclusters; carbon dots; nanodiamonds; semiconductor porous silicon; and up-conversion nanoparticles. This paper considers the promising groups of photoluminescent nanomaterials that can be used in medical biotechnology: in particular, for devising agents for optical diagnostic methods, sensorics, and various types of therapy.

The Glycocalyx and Its Role in Vascular Physiology and Vascular Related Diseases

Purpose

In 2007 the two senior authors wrote a review on the structure and function of the endothelial glycocalyx layer (Weinbaum in Annu Rev Biomed Eng 9:121–167, 2007). Since then there has been an explosion of interest in this hydrated gel-like structure that coats the luminal surface of endothelial cells that line our vasculature due to its important functions in (A) basic vascular physiology and (B) vascular related diseases. This review will highlight the major advances that have occurred since our 2007 paper.

Methods

A literature search mainly focusing on the role of the glycocalyx in the two major areas described above was performed using electronic databases.

Results

In part (A) of this review, the new formulation of the century old Starling principle, now referred to as the Michel–Weinbaum glycoclayx model or revised Starling hypothesis, is described including new subtleties and physiological ramifications. New insights into mechanotransduction and release of nitric oxide due to fluid shear stress sensed by the glycocalyx are elaborated. Major advances in understanding the organization and function of glycocalyx components, and new techniques for measuring both its thickness and spatio-chemical organization based on super resolution, stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (STORM) are presented. As discussed in part (B) of this review, it is now recognized that artery wall stiffness associated with hypertension and aging induces glycocalyx degradation, endothelial dysfunction and vascular disease. In addition to atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases, the glycocalyx plays an important role in lifestyle related diseases (e.g., diabetes) and cancer. Infectious diseases including sepsis, Dengue, Zika and Corona viruses, and malaria also involve the glycocalyx. Because of increasing recognition of the role of the glycocalyx in a wide range of diseases, there has been a vigorous search for methods to protect the glycocalyx from degradation or to enhance its synthesis in disease environments.

Conclusion

As we have seen in this review, many important developments in our basic understanding of GCX structure, function and role in diseases have been described since the 2007 paper. The future is wide open for continued GCX research.

Application of rare earth-doped nanoparticles in biological imaging and tumor treatment

Rare earth-doped nanoparticles have been widely used in disease diagnosis, drug delivery, tumor therapy, and bioimaging. Among various bioimaging methods, the fluorescence imaging technology based on the rare earth-doped nanoparticles can visually display the cell activity and lesion evolution in living animals, which is a powerful tool in biological technology and has being widely applied in medical and biological fields. Especially in the band of near infrared (700–1700 nm), the emissions show the characteristics of deep penetration due to low absorption, low photon scattering, and low autofluorescence interference. Furthermore, the rare earth-doped nanoparticles can be endowed with the water solubility, biocompatibility, drug-loading ability, and the targeting ability for different tumors by surface functionalization. This confirms its potential in the cancer diagnosis and treatment. In this review, we summarized the recent progress in the application of rare earth-doped nanoparticles in the field of bioimaging and tumor treatment. The luminescent mechanism, properties, and structure design were also discussed.