Plant-Derived Exosome-like Nanoparticles for Biomedical Applications and Regenerative Therapy

Landscape of exosomes to modified exosomes: a state of the art in cancer therapy

Exosomes are a subpopulation of extracellular vesicles (EVs) that naturally originate from endosomes. They play a significant role in cellular communication. Tumor-secreted exosomes play a crucial role in cancer development and significantly contribute to tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, and metastasis by intracellular communication. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) are a promising biomarker source of cancer detection in the early stages. On the other hand, they offer revolutionary cutting-edge approaches to cancer therapeutics. Exosomes offer a cell-free approach to cancer therapeutics, which overcomes immune cell and stem cell therapeutics-based limitations (complication, toxicity, and cost of treatment). There are multiple sources of therapeutic exosomes present (stem cells, immune cells, plant cells, and synthetic and modified exosomes). This article explores the dynamic source of exosomes (plants, mesenchymal stem cells, and immune cells) and their modification (chimeric, hybrid exosomes, exosome-based CRISPR, and drug delivery) based on cancer therapeutic development. This review also highlights exosomes based clinical trials and the challenges and future orientation of exosome research. We hope that this article will inspire researchers to further explore exosome-based cancer therapeutic platforms for precision oncology.

Exosome-mediated delivery of siRNA molecules in cancer therapy: triumphs and challenges

The discovery of novel and innovative therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment and management remains a major global challenge. Exosomes are endogenous nanoscale extracellular vesicles that have garnered increasing attention as innovative vehicles for advanced drug delivery and targeted therapy. The attractive physicochemical and biological properties of exosomes, including increased permeability, biocompatibility, extended half-life in circulation, reduced toxicity and immunogenicity, and multiple functionalization strategies, have made them preferred drug delivery vehicles in cancer and other diseases. Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are remarkably able to target any known gene: an attribute harnessed to knock down cancer-associated genes as a viable strategy in cancer management. Extensive research on exosome-mediated delivery of siRNAs for targeting diverse types of cancer has yielded promising results for anticancer therapy, with some formulations progressing through clinical trials. This review catalogs recent advances in exosome-mediated siRNA delivery in several types of cancer, including the manifold benefits and minimal drawbacks of such innovative delivery systems. Additionally, we have highlighted the potential of plant-derived exosomes as innovative drug delivery systems for cancer treatment, offering numerous advantages such as biocompatibility, scalability, and reduced toxicity compared to traditional methods. These exosomes, with their unique characteristics and potential for effective siRNA delivery, represent a significant advancement in nanomedicine and cancer therapeutics. Further exploration of their manufacturing processes and biological mechanisms could significantly advance natural medicine and enhance the efficacy of exosome-based therapies.

Dermatological Health in the Light of Skin Microbiome Evolution

BACKGROUND

The complex ecosystem of the skin microbiome is essential for skin health by acting as a primary defense against infections, regulating immune responses, and maintaining barrier integrity. This literature review aims to consolidate existing information on the skin microbiome, focusing on its composition, functionality, importance, and its impact on skin aging.

METHODS

An exhaustive exploration of scholarly literature was performed utilizing electronic databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate, focusing on studies published between 2011 and 2024. Keywords included "skin microbiome," "skin microbiota," and "aging skin." Studies involving human subjects that focused on the skin microbiome's relationship with skin health were included. Out of 100 initially identified studies, 70 met the inclusion criteria and were reviewed.

RESULTS

Studies showed that aging is associated with a reduction in the variety of microorganisms of the skin microbiome, leading to an increased susceptibility to skin conditions. Consequently, this underlines the interest in bacteriotherapy, mainly topical probiotics, to reinforce the skin microbiome in older adults, suggesting improvements in skin health and a reduction in age-related skin conditions. Further exploration is needed into the microbiome's role in skin health and the development of innovative, microbe-based skincare products. Biotherapeutic approaches, including the use of phages, endolysins, probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics, and microbiome transplantation, can restore balance and enhance skin health. This article also addresses regulatory standards in the EU and the USA that ensure the safety and effectiveness of microbial skincare products.

CONCLUSION

This review underscores the need to advance research on the skin microbiome's role in cosmetic enhancements and tailored skincare solutions, highlighting a great interest in leveraging microbial communities for dermatological benefits.

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles: a synergetic combination of a drug delivery system and a source of natural bioactive compounds

Exosomes are extracellular nanovesicles secreted by all cell types and have been studied to understand and treat many human diseases. Exosomes are involved in numerous physiological and pathological processes, intercellular communication, and the transfer of substances. Over the years, several studies have explored mammalian-derived exosomes for therapeutic and diagnostic uses. Only recently have plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) attracted attention for their ability to overcome many defects associated with using mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles, such as safety and scale-up issues. The ease of large-scale production, low toxicity, low immunogenicity, efficient cellular uptake, high biocompatibility, and high stability of these nanovesicles make them attractive for drug delivery systems. In addition, their native contents of proteins, miRNAs and secondary metabolites could be exploited for pharmaceutical applications in combination with other drugs. The present review intends to provide adequate tools for studying and developing drug delivery systems based on plant-derived EVs. Therefore, indications concerning extraction methods, characterisation, and drug loading will be offered. Their biological composition and content will also be reported. Finally, the current applications of these systems as nanocarriers for pharmacologically active substances will be shown.

Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles as a Novel Frontier in Cancer Therapeutics

Recent advancements in nanomedicine and biotechnology have unveiled the remarkable potential of plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) as a novel and promising approach for cancer treatment. These naturally occurring nanoscale particles exhibit exceptional biocompatibility, targeted delivery capabilities, and the capacity to load therapeutic agents, positioning them at the forefront of innovative cancer therapy strategies. PDEVs are distinguished by their unique properties that facilitate tumor targeting and penetration, thereby enhancing the efficacy of drug delivery systems. Their intrinsic biological composition allows for the evasion of the immune response, enabling the efficient transport of loaded therapeutic molecules directly to tumor sites. Moreover, PDEVs possess inherent anti-cancer properties, including the ability to induce cell cycle arrest and promote apoptotic pathways within tumor cells. These vesicles have also demonstrated antimetastatic effects, inhibiting the spread and growth of cancer cells. The multifunctional nature of PDEVs allows for the simultaneous delivery of multiple therapeutic agents, further enhancing their therapeutic potential. Engineering and modification techniques, such as encapsulation, and the loading of therapeutic agents via electroporation, sonication, and incubation, have enabled the customization of PDEVs to improve their targeting efficiency and therapeutic load capacity. This includes surface modifications to increase affinity for specific tumor markers and the encapsulation of various types of therapeutic agents, such as small molecule drugs, nucleic acids, and proteins. Their plant-derived origin offers an abundant and renewable source to produce therapeutic vesicles, reducing costs and facilitating scalability for clinical applications. This review provides an in-depth analysis of the latest research on PDEVs as emerging anti-cancer agents in cancer therapy.

Characterization of miRNA profiling in konjac-derived exosome-like nanoparticles and elucidation of their multifaceted roles in human health

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) have demonstrated cross-kingdom capabilities in regulating intercellular communication, facilitating drug delivery, and providing therapeutic interventions in humans. However, the functional attributes of konjac-derived ELNs (K-ELNs) remain largely unexplored. This study investigates the isolation, characterization, and functional analysis of K-ELNs, along with the profiling and differential expression analysis of associated miRNAs in both K-ELNs and Konjac tissues. K-ELNs were successfully isolated and characterized from two konjac species using ultracentrifugation, followed by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) and Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA). Small RNA sequencing identified a total of 3,259 miRNAs across all samples. Differential expression analysis revealed significant differences in miRNA profiles between K-ELNs and tissue samples. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) functional enrichment analysis of target genes provided insights into their roles in modulating pathways associated with diseases such as cancer and neurodegenerative disorders. Additionally, six miRNAs were selected for validation of sequencing results via RT-qPCR. The 5'RLM-RACE method was employed to validate the cleavage sites between differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) and their predicted target genes, further substantiating the regulatory roles of miRNAs in konjac. The findings of this study enhance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the biological functions and applications of K-ELNs, laying the groundwork for future research into their potential therapeutic roles in human health.

Exosomes in the Real World of Medical Aesthetics: A Review

BACKGROUND

Exosomes are cell-derived nanovesicles that transport proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids and play a significant role in almost every physiological process in the human body. They have generated great interest, especially in the field of tissue regeneration. Studies in the last decade support their great regenerating and rejuvenating potential. However, the lack of standardized procedures, limited knowledge regarding their action mechanism, and little clinical evidence impair their implementation and approval in the medical setting. This review aimed to identify published studies and clinical trials using exosomes in human patients for clinical treatments in aesthetic medicine.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A systematic search was conducted in the PubMed database using the search term "exosomes" and 25 terms related to aesthetic medicine treatments in human patients. Additionally, a search was conducted in the ClinicalTrials.gov database for interventional clinical trials using exosomes for aesthetic treatments in adults 18 to ≥ 65 years of age.

RESULTS

Nine articles were selected after debugging the initial list of published articles in which exosomes were related to Aesthetic Medicine (633 articles). Nine studies were identified from the initial search on ClinicalTrial.gov (104 trials with exosomes).

CONCLUSIONS

There is no doubt about the scientific basis of exosome regenerative potential and the growing interest in exosomes in Aesthetic Medicine. However, companies must spend more on research to develop standardized and reliable procedures to obtain exosomes for their approval and application in clinical practice.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE III

This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 . This review highlights the large amount of published research on exosomes related to aesthetic medicine and, at the same time, the lack of products approved by regulatory agencies. Several issues have been suggested to elucidate a response, such as the need for standardized protocols and more knowledge to ensure safe treatments. It also highlights the few clinical trials conducted to evaluate exosome properties in aesthetic medicine treatments.

Plant-derived extracellular nanovesicles: a promising biomedical approach for effective targeting of triple negative breast cancer cells

Introduction: Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC), a highly aggressive subtype accounting for 15-20% of all breast cancer cases, faces limited treatment options often accompanied by severe side effects. In recent years, natural extracellular nanovesicles derived from plants have emerged as promising candidates for cancer therapy, given their safety profile marked by non-immunogenicity and absence of inflammatory responses. Nevertheless, the potential anti-cancer effects of Citrus limon L.-derived extracellular nanovesicles (CLENs) for breast cancer treatment is still unexplored. Methods: In this study, we investigated the anti-cancer effects of CLENs on two TNBC cell lines (4T1 and HCC-1806 cells) under growth conditions in 2D and 3D culture environments. The cellular uptake efficiency of CLENs and their internalization mechanism were evaluated in both cells using confocal microscopy. Thereafter, we assessed the effect of different concentrations of CLENs on cell viability over time using a dual approach of Calcein-AM PI live-dead assay and CellTiter-Glo bioluminescence assay. We also examined the influence of CLENs on the migratory and evasion abilities of TNBC cells through wound healing and 3D Matrigel drop evasion assays. Furthermore, Western blot analysis was employed to investigate the effects of CLENs on the phosphorylation levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and extracellular signal- regulated kinase (ERK) expression. Results: We found that CLENs were internalized by the cells via endocytosis, leading to decreased cell viability, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Additionally, the migration and evasion abilities of TNBC cells were significantly inhibited under exposed to 40 and 80 μg/mL CLENs. Furthermore, down-regulated expression levels of phosphorylated phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), suggesting that the inhibition of cancer cell proliferation, migration, and evasion is driven by the inhibition of the PI3K/AKT and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways. Discussion: Overall, our results demonstrate the anti-tumor efficiency of CLENs against TNBC cells, highlighting their potential as promising natural anti-cancer agents for clinical applications in cancer treatment.

Comparison of morphology, protein concentration, and size distribution of bone marrow and Wharton's jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells exosomes isolated by ultracentrifugation and polymer-based precipitation techniques

Exosomes which are tiny extracellular vesicles (30-150 nm), transport vital proteins and gene materials such as miRNA, mRNA, or DNA, whose role in cell communication and epithelia regulation is critical. Many techniques have been developed as a result of studying exosomes' biochemical and physicochemical properties, although there is still no standard method to isolate exosomes simply with high yield. Commercial kits have gained popularity for exosome extraction despite concerns about their effectiveness in scientific research. On the other hand, ultracentrifugation remains the gold standard isolation method. This study compares these two common exosome isolation methods to determine their impact on the quality and quantity of exosomes isolated from bone marrow (BM) and Wharton's jelly (WJ)-derived mesenchymal stem cells. Isolated exosomes from the two sources of the cell's conditioned medium by two methods (polymer kit and ultracentrifuge) were characterized using western blotting, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and the Bradford assay. Western blot analysis confirmed separation efficiency based on CD81 and CD63 markers, with the absence of calnexin serving as a negative control. The Morphology of exosomes studied by SEM image analysis revealed a similar round shape appearance and their sizes (30-150 nm) were the same in both isolation techniques. The DLS analysis of the sample results was consistent with the SEM ones, showing a similar size range and very low disparity. The exosome protein content concentration analysis revealed that exosomes isolated by the polymer-based kits contained higher protein concentration density and purity (p <0.001). In general, though the protein yield was higher when the polymer-based kits were used, there were no significant differences in morphology, or size between WJ-derived and BM-derived exosomes, regardless of the isolation method employed.

Anti-inflammatory potential of goldenberry-derived exosome-like nanoparticles in macrophage polarization

Objective: Overpopulated M1 macrophages can trigger chronic inflammation. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles have been reported to show beneficial bioactivities. Aim: To isolate PDEN from goldenberry fruits and evaluate its anti-inflammatory potential in macrophage polarization. Methods: GDEN were isolated by centrifugation and precipitation methods. LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells were treated with GDEN before being evaluated with nitric oxide production assay and flow cytometry of CD80 and CD209. Results: GDEN averaged 227.7 nm in size and spherical-shaped. GDEN 40 μg/ml decreased NO production in LPS-induced cells. Flow cytometry showed that CD209 (M2 marker) positive cells were up-regulated after being treated with 20 μg/ml GDEN. Conclusion: GDEN showed anti-inflammatory potential through the ability to reduce M1 macrophages product and promote M2 polarization.

Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles from Agri-Food Wastes: A Novel Perspective in the Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products

Agri-food wastes generated by industrial food processing are valorized through the extraction of biomolecules to obtain value-added products useful for various industrial applications. In the present review, we describe the valuable by-products and bioactive molecules that can be obtained from agricultural wastes and propose extracellular vesicles (EVs) as innovative nutraceutical and therapeutic compounds that could be derived from agriculture residues. To support this idea, we described the general features and roles of EVs and focused on plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) that are considered natural carriers of bioactive molecules and are involved in intercellular communication between diverse kingdoms of life. Consistently, PDEVs exert beneficial effects (anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and immune-modulatory) on mammalian cells. Although this research field is currently in its infancy, in the near future, the isolation of EVs and their use as nutraceutical tools could represent a new and innovative way to valorize waste from the agri-food industry in an ecofriendly way.

Research status and challenges of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles

In recent years, there has been an increasing number of related studies on exosomes. Most studies have focused on exosomes derived from mammals, confirming the important role that exosomes play in cell communication. Plants, as a natural ingredient, plant-derived exosomes have been confirmed to have similar structures and functions to mammalian-derived exosomes. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are lipid bilayer membrane nanovesicles containing bioactive constituents such as miRNA, mRNA, protein, and lipids obtained from plant cells, that can participate in intercellular communication and mediate transboundary communication, have high bioavailability and low immunogenicity, are relatively safe, and have been shown to play an important role in maintaining cell homeostasis and preventing, and treating a variety of diseases. In this review, we describe the biogenesis, isolation and purification methods, structural composition, stability, safety, function of PELNs and challenges. The functions of PELNs in anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor and drug delivery are mainly described, and the status of research on exosome nanoparticles of Chinese herbal medicines is outlined. Overall, we summarized the importance of PELNs and the latest research results in this field and provided a theoretical basis for the future research and clinical application of PELNs.

Plant-derived exosomes: a green approach for cancer drug delivery

Plant-derived exosomes (PDEs) are natural extracellular vesicles (EVs). In the current decade, they have been highlighted for cancer therapeutic development. Cancer is a global health crisis and it requires an effective, affordable, and less side effect-based treatment. Emerging research based on PDEs suggests that they have immense potential to be considered as a therapeutic option. Research evidences indicate that PDEs' internal molecular cargos show impressive cancer prevention activity with less toxicity. PDEs-based drug delivery systems overcome several limitations of traditional drug delivery tools. Extraction of PDEs from plant sources employ diverse methodologies, encompassing ultracentrifugation, immunoaffinity, size-based isolation, and precipitation, each with distinct advantages and limitations. The core constituents of PDEs comprise of lipids, proteins, DNA, and RNA. Worldwide, a few clinical trials on plant-derived exosomes are underway, and regulatory affairs for their use as therapeutic agents are still not understood with clarity. This review aims to comprehensively analyze the current state of research on plant-derived exosomes as a promising avenue for drug delivery, highlighting anticancer activity, challenges, and future orientation in effective cancer therapeutic development.

Prospects of plant-derived exosome-like nanocarriers in oncology and tissue engineering

Almost all cell types, either in vivo or in vitro, create extracellular vesicles (EVs). Among them are exosomes (EXOs), i.e., tiny nanovesicles containing a lipid bilayer, proteins, and RNAs that are actively involved in cellular communication, indicating that they may be exploited as both diagnostics and therapeutics for conditions like cancer. These nanoparticles can also be used as nanocarriers in many types of research to carry agents such as drugs. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PENs) are currently under investigation as a substitute for EXOs formed from mammalian cells, allowing researchers to get beyond the technical constraints of mammalian vesicles. Because of their physiological, chemical, and biological properties, PENs have a lot of promise for use as nanocarriers in drug delivery systems that can deliver various dosages, especially when it comes to large-scale repeatability. The present study has looked at the origins and isolation techniques of PENs, their anticancer properties, their usage as nanocarriers in the treatment of different illnesses, and their antioxidant properties. These nanoparticles can aid in the achievement of therapeutic objectives, as they have benign, non-immunogenic side effects and can pass biological barriers. Time-consuming and perhaps damaging PEN separation techniques is used. For the current PEN separation techniques to be used in commercial and therapeutic settings, they must be altered. In this regard, the concurrent application of biological sciences can be beneficial for improving PEN separation techniques. PENs' innate metabolic properties provide them a great deal of promise for application in drug delivery systems. However, there could be a risk to both the loaded medications and the intrinsic bioactive components if these particles are heavily armed with drugs. Therefore, to prevent these side effects, more studies are needed to devise sophisticated drug-loading procedures and to learn more about the physiology of PENs.