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Lachmayr H, Merrill AH. A Brief Overview of the Toxic Sphingomyelinase Ds of Brown Recluse Spider Venom and Other Organisms and Simple Methods To Detect Production of Its Signature Cyclic Ceramide Phosphate. Mol Pharmacol 2024; 105:144-154. [PMID: 37739813 PMCID: PMC10877732 DOI: 10.1124/molpharm.123.000709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 08/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023] Open
Abstract
A special category of phospholipase D (PLD) in the venom of the brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) and several other sicariid spiders accounts for the dermonecrosis and many of the other clinical symptoms of envenomation. Related proteins are produced by other organisms, including fungi and bacteria. These PLDs are often referred to as sphingomyelinase Ds (SMase Ds) because they cleave sphingomyelin (SM) to choline and "ceramide phosphate." The lipid product has actually been found to be a novel sphingolipid: ceramide 1,3-cyclic phosphate (Cer1,3P). Since there are no effective treatments for the injury induced by the bites of these spiders, SMase D/PLDs are attractive targets for therapeutic intervention, and some of their features will be described in this minireview. In addition, two simple methods are described for detecting the characteristic SMase D activity using a fluorescent SM analog, (N-[12-[(7-nitro-2-1,3-benzoxadiazol-4-yl)amino]dodecanoyl]-SM (C12-NBD-SM), that is cleaved to C12-NBD-Cer1,3P, which is easily separated from other potential metabolites by thin-layer chromatography and visualized under UV light. Besides confirming that C12-NBD-Cer1,3P is the only product detected upon incubation of C12-NBD-SM with brown recluse spider venom, the method was also able to detect for the first time very low levels of activity in venom from another spider, Kukulcania hibernalis The simplicity of the methods makes it relatively easy to determine this signature activity of SMase D/PLD. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The sphingomyelinase D/phospholipase D that are present in the venom of the brown recluse spider and other sources cause considerable human injury, but detection of the novel sphingolipid product, ceramide 1,3-cyclic phosphate, is not easy by previously published methods. This minireview describes simple methods for detection of this activity that will be useful for studies of its occurrence in spider venoms and other biological samples, perhaps including lesions from suspected spider bites and infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Lachmayr
- School of Biological Sciences and the Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Alfred H Merrill
- School of Biological Sciences and the Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia
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Fakhar M, Alian S, Soleymani M, Zakariaei A, Nourzad F, Zakariaei Z. Massive dermal ulcerative lesions due to brown recluse spider bite: a rare case report and review of literature. J Int Med Res 2023; 51:3000605231157284. [PMID: 37565672 PMCID: PMC10691315 DOI: 10.1177/03000605231157284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
A brown recluse spider (BRS) bite is challenging to confirm, but may be clinically diagnosed by considering the location, the season of the year, and the clinical manifestations. Here, the case of a 26-year-old male who presented after an insect bite with a skin lesion, bruising, severe swelling, and diffuse blisters on the right lower extremity after three days, is described. Following clinical examination, patient history assessment, and consideration of other relevant factors, the patient received a differential diagnosis of necrotizing fasciitis caused by BRS bite. Although spider bite poisoning is rare, proper diagnosis and management are important because, in some cases, the outcomes may be devastating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Fakhar
- Iranian National Registry Centre for Lophomoniasis and Toxoplasmosis, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Shahriar Alian
- Antimicrobial Resistance Research Centre, Department of Infectious Diseases, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Mostafa Soleymani
- Iranian National Registry Centre for Lophomoniasis and Toxoplasmosis, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Ashkan Zakariaei
- Student Research Committee, Babol Branch, Islamic Azad University, Babol, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Nourzad
- Toxicology Ward, Qaemshahr Razi Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Zakaria Zakariaei
- Toxicology and Forensic Medicine Division, Mazandaran Registry Centre for Opioids Poisoning, Antimicrobial Resistance Research Centre, Imam Khomeini Hospital, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran
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da Justa HC, Hernández González JE, Vuitika L, Mariutti RB, Magnago PAM, de Moraes FR, Senff-Ribeiro A, Gremski LH, Arni RK, Veiga SS. Comparative Biochemical, Structural, and Functional Analysis of Recombinant Phospholipases D from Three Loxosceles Spider Venoms. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12006. [PMID: 37569382 PMCID: PMC10419089 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Spiders of Loxosceles genus are widely distributed and their venoms contain phospholipases D (PLDs), which degrade phospholipids and trigger inflammatory responses, dermonecrosis, hematological changes, and renal injuries. Biochemical, functional, and structural properties of three recombinant PLDs from L. intermedia, L. laeta, and L. gaucho, the principal species clinically relevant in South America, were analyzed. Sera against L. gaucho and L. laeta PLDs strongly cross-reacted with other PLDs, but sera against L. intermedia PLD mostly reacted with homologous molecules, suggesting underlying structural and functional differences. PLDs presented a similar secondary structure profile but distinct melting temperatures. Different methods demonstrated that all PLDs cleave sphingomyelin and lysophosphatidylcholine, but L. gaucho and L. laeta PLDs excelled. L. gaucho PLD showed greater "in vitro" hemolytic activity. L. gaucho and L. laeta PLDs were more lethal in assays with mice and crickets. Molecular dynamics simulations correlated their biochemical activities with differences in sequences and conformations of specific surface loops, which play roles in protein stability and in modulating interactions with the membrane. Despite the high similarity, PLDs from L. gaucho and L. laeta venoms are more active than L. intermedia PLD, requiring special attention from physicians when these two species prevail in endemic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Câmara da Justa
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil; (H.C.d.J.); (L.V.); (P.A.M.M.); (A.S.-R.); (L.H.G.)
| | - Jorge Enrique Hernández González
- Department of Physics, Multi-User Center for Biomolecular Innovation, State University of São Paulo (UNESP), São Paulo 05315-970, Brazil; (J.E.H.G.); (R.B.M.); (F.R.d.M.); (R.K.A.)
| | - Larissa Vuitika
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil; (H.C.d.J.); (L.V.); (P.A.M.M.); (A.S.-R.); (L.H.G.)
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences IV, University of São Paulo (ICB-IV/USP), São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Barros Mariutti
- Department of Physics, Multi-User Center for Biomolecular Innovation, State University of São Paulo (UNESP), São Paulo 05315-970, Brazil; (J.E.H.G.); (R.B.M.); (F.R.d.M.); (R.K.A.)
| | - Pedro Augusto Martinho Magnago
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil; (H.C.d.J.); (L.V.); (P.A.M.M.); (A.S.-R.); (L.H.G.)
| | - Fábio Rogério de Moraes
- Department of Physics, Multi-User Center for Biomolecular Innovation, State University of São Paulo (UNESP), São Paulo 05315-970, Brazil; (J.E.H.G.); (R.B.M.); (F.R.d.M.); (R.K.A.)
| | - Andrea Senff-Ribeiro
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil; (H.C.d.J.); (L.V.); (P.A.M.M.); (A.S.-R.); (L.H.G.)
| | - Luiza Helena Gremski
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil; (H.C.d.J.); (L.V.); (P.A.M.M.); (A.S.-R.); (L.H.G.)
| | - Raghuvir Krishnaswamy Arni
- Department of Physics, Multi-User Center for Biomolecular Innovation, State University of São Paulo (UNESP), São Paulo 05315-970, Brazil; (J.E.H.G.); (R.B.M.); (F.R.d.M.); (R.K.A.)
| | - Silvio Sanches Veiga
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil; (H.C.d.J.); (L.V.); (P.A.M.M.); (A.S.-R.); (L.H.G.)
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Production and Functional Evaluation of Anti- Loxosceles Sera Raised by Immunizations of Rabbits with Mutated Recombinant Phospholipases-D. Biomedicines 2022; 11:biomedicines11010079. [PMID: 36672587 PMCID: PMC9856178 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11010079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Loxoscelism is the clinical condition triggered after the bite of spiders of the genus Loxosceles. The main species involved in accidents in South America are L. intermedia, L. laeta, and L. gaucho. The only specific treatment is the anti-Loxosceles serum produced with crude venoms. As phospholipases D (PLDs) trigger most of the effects observed in accidents, we developed and evaluated second-generation sera using mutated PLDs as antigens. Three isoforms of PLDs with site-directed mutations without biological activities were used for rabbit immunizations: D32A-E34A (L. gaucho), W230A (L. intermedia), and H12A-H47A (L. laeta). Sera were produced using crude venoms of three species of Loxosceles enriched with mutated recombinant PLDs (MIX) or using only mutated PLDs (REC). Immunizations stimulated the immune system from the second immunization with higher antibody production in the REC group. In vivo neutralization assays demonstrated that both sera reduced edema and dermonecrosis caused by Loxosceles intermedia crude venom. Follow-up of animals during the immunization protocols and in the neutralization assays demonstrated that the mutated proteins and the sera are safe. Results demonstrate the potential of using mutated recombinant PLDs in total or partial replacement of Loxosceles venoms in animal immunizations to produce anti-Loxosceles sera for treatments of Loxoscelism.
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Gremski LH, da Justa HC, Polli NLC, Schluga PHDC, Theodoro JL, Wille ACM, Senff-Ribeiro A, Veiga SS. Systemic Loxoscelism, Less Frequent but More Deadly: The Involvement of Phospholipases D in the Pathophysiology of Envenomation. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 15:17. [PMID: 36668837 PMCID: PMC9864854 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Bites of Loxosceles spiders can lead to a set of clinical manifestations called loxoscelism, and are considered a public health problem in many regions. The signs and symptoms of loxoscelism are divided into cutaneous and systemic forms. The former is more frequent and includes signs of envenoming at the bite site or neighboring regions. Systemic loxoscelism, although much less frequent, is associated with complications, and can even lead to death. It may include intravascular hemolysis, acute renal failure, and thrombocytopenia. Loxosceles venoms are enriched with phospholipases D (PLDs), which are a family of isoforms found at intra-species and inter-species levels. Under experimental conditions, these enzymes reproduce the main clinical signs of loxoscelism, including an exacerbated inflammatory response at the bite site and dermonecrosis, as well as thrombocytopenia, intravascular hemolysis, and acute renal failure. The role of PLDs in cutaneous loxoscelism was described over forty years ago, when studies identified and purified toxins featured as sphingomyelinase D. More recently, the production of recombinant PLDs and discoveries about their structure and mechanism has enabled a deeper characterization of these enzymes. In this review, we describe these biochemical and functional features of Loxosceles PLDs that determine their involvement in systemic loxoscelism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiza Helena Gremski
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Hanna Câmara da Justa
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil
| | | | | | - João Lucas Theodoro
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Martins Wille
- Department of Structural, Molecular Biology and Genetics, State University of Ponta Grossa (UEPG), Ponta Grossa 84030-900, Brazil
| | - Andrea Senff-Ribeiro
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil
| | - Silvio Sanches Veiga
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba 81531-980, Brazil
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Ferreira MD, Veiga SS, Dos Santos FA. Brown spider (Loxosceles sp.) bite and COVID-19: A case report. Toxicon 2022; 212:1-7. [PMID: 35346694 PMCID: PMC8957330 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
We present the case of a 32-year-old male patient hospitalized during the COVID-19 pandemic because of a Brown spider bite on his lower lip. The Brown spider accident occurred in southern Brazil; at hospital admission, the patient presented on his lip: edema, pustules, necrotic regions, and ulcerations. The patient complained of lower back pain, fever and dyspnea. Laboratory tests showed monocytosis, leukocytosis, neutrophilia, increased D-dimer levels, C-reactive protein, glutamate-pyruvate transaminase, delta bilirubin, creatine phosphokinase, procalcitonin, and fibrinogen. The patient was hospitalized and a multi-professional team carried out the treatment. The medical team diagnosed loxoscelism with moderate changes. The dentist treated the oral cavity. The patient began to develop nausea, vomiting, and desaturation episodes during hospitalization. A computed tomography of the chest was performed, which showed signs of viral infection. The RT-PCR test for COVID-19 was positive. The systemic conditions worsened (renal dysfunction, systemic inflammatory response, pulmonary complications). This condition may have resulted from the association of the two diseases (loxoscelism and COVID-19), leading to the patient's death. This case illustrates the difficulties and risks in treating patients with venomous animal accidents during the pandemic, and the importance of a multi-professional team in treating such cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marceli Dias Ferreira
- Department of Dentistry, School of Dentistry, State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil
| | | | - Fábio André Dos Santos
- Department of Dentistry, School of Dentistry, State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, PR, Brazil.
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A protective vaccine against the toxic activities following Brown spider accidents based on recombinant mutated phospholipases D as antigens. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 192:757-770. [PMID: 34634338 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Accidents involving Brown spiders are reported throughout the world. In the venom, the major toxins involved in the deleterious effects are phospholipases D (PLDs). In this work, recombinant mutated phospholipases D from three endemic species medically relevant in South America (Loxosceles intermedia, L. laeta and L. gaucho) were tested as antigens in a vaccination protocol. In such isoforms, key amino acid residues involved in catalysis, magnesium-ion coordination, and binding to substrates were replaced by Alanine (H12A-H47A, E32A-D34A and W230A). These mutations eliminated the phospholipase activity and reduced the generation of skin necrosis and edema to residual levels. Molecular modeling of mutated isoforms indicated that the three-dimensional structures, topologies, and surface charges did not undergo significant changes. Mutated isoforms were recognized by sera against the crude venoms. Vaccination protocols in rabbits using mutated isoforms generated a serum that recognized the native PLDs of crude venoms and neutralized dermonecrosis and edema induced by L. intermedia venom. Vaccination of mice prevented the lethal effects of L. intermedia crude venom. Furthermore, vaccination of rabbits prevented the cutaneous lesion triggered by the three venoms. These results indicate a great potential for mutated recombinant PLDs to be employed as antigens in developing protective vaccines for Loxoscelism.
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Gremski LH, Matsubara FH, Polli NLC, Antunes BC, Schluga PHDC, da Justa HC, Minozzo JC, Wille ACM, Senff-Ribeiro A, Veiga SS. Prospective Use of Brown Spider Venom Toxins as Therapeutic and Biotechnological Inputs. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:706704. [PMID: 34222343 PMCID: PMC8247472 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.706704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Brown spider (genus Loxosceles) venoms are mainly composed of protein toxins used for predation and defense. Bites of these spiders most commonly produce a local dermonecrotic lesion with gravitational spread, edema and hemorrhage, which together are defined as cutaneous loxoscelism. Systemic loxoscelism, such as hematological abnormalities and renal injury, are less frequent but more lethal. Some Loxosceles venom toxins have already been isolated and extensively studied, such as phospholipases D (PLDs), which have been recombinantly expressed and were proven to reproduce toxic activities associated to the whole venom. PLDs have a notable potential to be engineered and converted in non-toxic antigens to produce a new generation of antivenoms or vaccines. PLDs also can serve as tools to discover inhibitors to be used as therapeutic agents. Other Loxosceles toxins have been identified and functionally characterized, such as hyaluronidases, allergen factor, serpin, TCTP and knottins (ICK peptides). All these toxins were produced as recombinant molecules and are biologically active molecules that can be used as tools for the potential development of chemical candidates to tackle many medical and biological threats, acting, for instance, as antitumoral, insecticides, analgesic, antigens for allergy tests and biochemical reagents for cell studies. In addition, these recombinant toxins may be useful to develop a rational therapy for loxoscelism. This review summarizes the main candidates for the development of drugs and biotechnological inputs that have been described in Brown spider venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Bruno Cesar Antunes
- Department of Cell Biology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil.,Production and Research Center of Immunobiological Products, State Department of Health, Piraquara, Brazil
| | | | | | - João Carlos Minozzo
- Production and Research Center of Immunobiological Products, State Department of Health, Piraquara, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Martins Wille
- Department of Structural, Molecular Biology and Genetics, State University of Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Brazil
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