Association of Caspase 3 Activation and H2AX γ Phosphorylation in the Aging Brain: Studies on Untreated and Irradiated Mice

Suppressing Organic Bromine but Promoting Bromate: Is the Ultraviolet/Ozone Process a Double-Edged Sword for the Toxicity of Wastewater to Mammalian Cells?

Brominated byproducts and toxicity generation are critical issues for ozone application to wastewater containing bromide. This study demonstrated that ultraviolet/ozone (UV/O3, 100 mJ/cm2, 1 mg-O3/mg-DOC) reduced the cytotoxicity of wastewater from 14.2 mg of pentol/L produced by ozonation to 4.3 mg of pentol/L (1 mg/L bromide, pH 7.0). The genotoxicity was also reduced from 1.65 to 0.17 μg-4-NQO/L by UV/O3. Compared with that of O3 alone, adsorbable organic bromine was reduced from 25.8 to 5.3 μg/L by UV/O3, but bromate increased from 32.9 to 71.4 μg/L. The UV/O3 process enhanced the removal of pre-existing precursors (highly unsaturated and phenolic compounds and poly aromatic hydrocarbons), while new precursors were generated, yet the combined effect of UV/O3 on precursors did not result in a significant change in toxicity. Instead, UV radiation inhibited HOBr concentration through both rapid O3 decomposition to reduce HOBr production and decomposition of the formed HOBr, thus suppressing the AOBr formation. However, the hydroxyl radical-dominated pathway in UV/O3 led to a significant increase of bromate. Considering both organic bromine and bromate, the UV/O3 process effectively controlled both cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of wastewater to mammalian cells, even though an emphasis should be also placed on managing elevated bromate. Futhermore, other end points are needed to evaluate the toxicity outcomes of the UV/O3 process.

An Overview of the Epigenetic Modifications in the Brain under Normal and Pathological Conditions

Epigenetic changes are changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the DNA sequence. These changes lead to establishing a so-called epigenetic code that dictates which and when genes are activated, thus orchestrating gene regulation and playing a central role in development, health, and disease. The brain, being mostly formed by cells that do not undergo a renewal process throughout life, is highly prone to the risk of alterations leading to neuronal death and neurodegenerative disorders, mainly at a late age. Here, we review the main epigenetic modifications that have been described in the brain, with particular attention on those related to the onset of developmental anomalies or neurodegenerative conditions and/or occurring in old age. DNA methylation and several types of histone modifications (acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, ubiquitination, sumoylation, lactylation, and crotonylation) are major players in these processes. They are directly or indirectly involved in the onset of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease. Therefore, this review briefly describes the roles of these epigenetic changes in the mechanisms of brain development, maturation, and aging and some of the most important factors dynamically regulating or contributing to these changes, such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Changes in the Proliferation of the Neural Progenitor Cells of Adult Mice Chronically Infected with Toxoplasma gondii

During Toxoplasma gondii chronic infection, certain internal factors that trigger the proliferation of neural progenitor cells (NPCs), such as brain inflammation, cell death, and changes in cytokine levels, are observed. NPCs give rise to neuronal cell types in the adult brain of some mammals. NPCs are capable of dividing and differentiating into a restricted repertoire of neuronal and glial cell types. In this study, the proliferation of NPCs was evaluated in CD-1 adult male mice chronically infected with the T. gondii ME49 strain. Histological brain sections from the infected mice were evaluated in order to observe T. gondii tissue cysts. Sagittal and coronal sections from the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles and from the subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus, as well as sagittal sections from the rostral migratory stream, were obtained from infected and non-infected mice previously injected with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU). A flotation immunofluorescence technique was used to identify BrdU+ NPC. The scanning of BrdU+ cells was conducted using a confocal microscope, and the counting was performed with ImageJ® software (version 1.48q). In all the evaluated zones from the infected mice, a significant proliferation of the NPCs was observed when compared with that of the control group. We concluded that chronic infection with T. gondii increased the proliferation of NPCs in the three evaluated zones. Regardless of the role these cells are playing, our results could be useful to better understand the pathogenesis of chronic toxoplasmosis.

Brain-aging related protein expression and imaging characteristics of mice exposed to chronic hypoxia at high altitude

Objective

To determine changes in protein expression related to brain aging and imaging features in mice after chronic hypoxia exposure at high altitude.

Method

A total of 24 healthy 4-week-old mice were randomly divided into high altitude hypoxia (HH) and plain control (PC) groups (n = 8 per group). HH mice were transported from Xi'an (450 m above sea level) to Maduo (4,300 m above sea level) while PC mice were raised in Xi'an. After 6 months, 7.0T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed. All mice completed T2-weighted imaging (T2WI), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI), arterial spin labeling (ASL), and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) examinations. Next, brain slices were prepared and Nissl staining was used to observe morphological changes in neurons. Ultrastructural changes in neurons were observed by transmission electron microscopy. Expression changes of Caspase-3, klotho, P16, P21, and P53 at the gene and protein levels were detected by real-time PCR (RT-PCR) and Western blot.

Results

The number of neuronal Nissl bodies in the hippocampus and frontal cortex was significantly decreased in the HH group compared to the PC group. Some hippocampal and frontal cortical neurons were apoptotic, the nuclei were wrinkled, chromatin was aggregated, and most mitochondria were mildly swollen (crista lysis, fracture). Compared with the PC group, the HH group showed elevated expression of caspase-3 mRNA, P16 mRNA, P21 mRNA, and P53 mRNA in the hippocampus and frontal cortex. Expression of Klotho mRNA in the frontal cortex was also significantly decreased. Western blot results showed that caspase-3 protein expression in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of the HH group was increased compared with the PC group. Moreover, there was decreased Klotho protein expression and significantly increased P-P53 protein expression. Compared with the PC group, expression of P16 protein in the frontal cortex of the HH group was increased and the gray matter (GM) volume in the left visceral area, left caudate nucleus, and left piriform cortex was decreased. Furthermore, the amplitude of low frequency fluctuation was decreased in the left posterior nongranular insular lobe, right small cell reticular nucleus, left flocculus, left accessory flocculus, and left primary auditory area, but increased in the GM layer of the left superior colliculus. Regional homogeneity was decreased in the left and right olfactory regions, but increased in the left bed nucleus. After exposure to high altitude, functional connectivity (FC) between the bilateral caudate nucleus and thalamus, corpus callosum, cingulate gyrus, anterior limbic cortex, globus pallidus, and hippocampus was weakened. FC between the right caudate nucleus and hypothalamus and entorhinal cortex was also weakened. The fractional anisotropy value of the left hippocampus was decreased in the HH group. Compared with the PC group, the HH group showed significantly increased inner diameters of the bilateral common carotid artery and left internal carotid artery. The cerebral blood flow values of the bilateral cortex and bilateral hippocampus in the HH group did not change significantly.

Conclusion

Taken together, our findings show that chronic hypoxia exposure at high altitude may promote neuronal apoptosis and abnormal expression of related proteins, changing the structure and function of brain. These changes may contribute to brain aging.

Apoptosis-50 Years after Its Discovery

Apoptosis is a programmed cell death routine that plays an essential role in several biological processes, namely, embryonic development, tissue homeostasis, and immune response [...].

Intracellular calprotectin (S100A8/A9) facilitates DNA damage responses and promotes apoptosis in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

OBJECTIVES

In head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), poor prognosis and low survival rates are associated with downregulated calprotectin. Calprotectin (S100A8/A9) inhibits cancer cell migration and invasion and facilitates G2/M cell cycle arrest. We investigated whether S100A8/A9 regulates DNA damage responses (DDR) and apoptosis in HNSCC after chemoradiation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Human HNSCC cases in TCGA were analyzed for relationships between S100A8/A9 and expression of apoptosis-related genes. Next, S100A8/A9-expressing and non-expressing carcinoma lines (two different lineages) were exposed to genotoxic agents and assessed for 53BP1 and γH2AX expression and percent of viable/dead cells. Finally, S100A8/A9-wild-type and S100A8/A9null C57BL/6j mice were treated with 4-NQO to induce oral dysplastic and carcinomatous lesions, which were compared for levels of 53BP1.

RESULTS

In S100A8/A9-high HNSCC tumors, apoptosis-related caspase family member genes were upregulated, whereas genes limiting apoptosis were significantly downregulated based on TCGA analyses. After X-irradiation or camptothecin treatment, S100A8/A9-expressing carcinoma cells (i.e., TR146 and KB-S100A8/A9) showed significantly higher 53BP1 and γH2AX expression, DNA fragmentation, proportions of dead cells, and greater sensitivity to cisplatin than wild-type KB or TR146-S100A8/A9-KD cells. Interestingly, KB-S100A8/A9Δ113-114 cells showed similar 53BP1 and γH2AX levels to S100A8/A9-negative KB and KB-EGFP cells. After 4-NQO treatment, 53BP1 expression in oral lesions was significantly greater in calprotectin+/+ than S100A8/A9null mice.

CONCLUSIONS

In HNSCC cells, intracellular calprotectin is strongly suggested to potentiate DDR and promote apoptosis in response to genotoxic agents. Hence, patients with S100A8/A9-high HNSCC may encounter more favorable outcomes because more tumor cells enter apoptosis with increased sensitivity to chemoradiation therapy.

Protective Effects of Hexarelin and JMV2894 in a Human Neuroblastoma Cell Line Expressing the SOD1-G93A Mutated Protein

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an incurable motor neuron disease whose etiology remains unresolved; nonetheless, mutations of superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) have been associated with several variants of ALS. Currently available pharmacologic interventions are only symptomatic and palliative in effect; therefore, there is a pressing demand for more effective drugs. This study examined potential therapeutic effects of growth hormone secretagogues (GHSs), a large family of synthetic compounds, as possible candidates for the treatment of ALS. Human neuroblastoma cells expressing the SOD1-G93A mutated protein (SH-SY5Y SOD1^G93A cells) were incubated for 24 h with H₂O₂ (150 µM) in the absence, or presence, of GHS (1 µM), in order to study the protective effect of GHS against increased oxidative stress. The two GHSs examined in this study, hexarelin and JMV2894, protected cells from H₂O₂-induced cytotoxicity by activating molecules that regulate apoptosis and promote cell survival processes. These findings suggest the possibility of developing new GHS-based anti-oxidant and neuroprotective drugs with improved therapeutic potential. Further investigations are required for the following: (i) to clarify GHS molecular mechanisms of action, and (ii) to envisage the development of new GHSs that may be useful in ALS therapy.

Chromatin Structure from Development to Ageing

Nuclear structure influences genome architecture, which contributes to determine patterns of gene expression. Global changes in chromatin dynamics are essential during development and differentiation, and are one of the hallmarks of ageing. This chapter describes the molecular dynamics of chromatin structure that occur during development and ageing. In the first part, we introduce general information about the nuclear lamina, the chromatin structure, and the 3D organization of the genome. Next, we detail the molecular hallmarks found during development and ageing, including the role of DNA and histone modifications, 3D genome dynamics, and changes in the nuclear lamina. Within the chapter we discuss the implications that genome structure has on the mechanisms that drive development and ageing, and the physiological consequences when these mechanisms fail.

A novel 3D pillar/well array platform using patient-derived head and neck tumor to predict the individual radioresponse

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Radiotherapy is a critical modality in head and neck cancer treatment.

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A novel 3D pillar/well array platform provides the individual radioresponse biomarker, RT_auc.

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Poor and good radioresponse group by RT_auc correlates with other clinical features.

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RT_auc shows potential for radioresponse biomarker, useful in clinical decision-making.

Predicting individual radiotherapy (RT) response is valuable in managing head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). We assessed the feasibility of our novel 3D culture platform to measure radioresponse using patient-derived cells (PDCs) from HNSCC patients.

Cells from the FaDu line and tumor samples from 39 HNSCC patients were cultivated serially in Matrigel^TM on a 3D pillar/well array culture system. The 3D tumor models were exposed to 0 to 8 Gy of radiation dose, and the radioresponse index (RT_auc, area under the dose-response curve) was measured quantitatively with Calcein AM staining of live tumor cells. Calcein AM fluorescence showed reduced density and the number of FaDu colonies as radiation increased, implying a dose-dependent effect on cell viability in the 3D pillar/well culture system. 3D tumor models using PDCs were established successfully from 39 HNSCC patient tumor samples, maintaining original genomic and pathological characteristics. These 3D tumor models were exposed to ionizing radiation on a 3D pillar/well array, with a mean period of 12 days from tumor harvest to the measurement of RT_auc. The RT_auc of all PDCs varied from 3.5 to 9.4, and the lower 40th percentile (Z-score = -0.26) was considered a good radioresponse group with a threshold RT_auc of 4.6. The good radioresponse group showed fewer adverse features than others. As of the last follow-up, recurrence-free survival was better in the good radioresponse group (p = 0.037). 3D pillar/well array platforms using PDC could rapidly quantify radioresponse index in patients with HNSCC, showing potential as a novel prognosticator.

The Phosphorylated Form of the Histone H2AX (γH2AX) in the Brain from Embryonic Life to Old Age

The γ phosphorylated form of the histone H2AX (γH2AX) was described more than 40 years ago and it was demonstrated that phosphorylation of H2AX was one of the first cellular responses to DNA damage. Since then, γH2AX has been implicated in diverse cellular functions in normal and pathological cells. In the first part of this review, we will briefly describe the intervention of H2AX in the DNA damage response (DDR) and its role in some pivotal cellular events, such as regulation of cell cycle checkpoints, genomic instability, cell growth, mitosis, embryogenesis, and apoptosis. Then, in the main part of this contribution, we will discuss the involvement of γH2AX in the normal and pathological central nervous system, with particular attention to the differences in the DDR between immature and mature neurons, and to the significance of H2AX phosphorylation in neurogenesis and neuronal cell death. The emerging picture is that H2AX is a pleiotropic molecule with an array of yet not fully understood functions in the brain, from embryonic life to old age.