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Sarkar A, Sarkhel S, Bisht D, Jaiswal A. Cationic dextrin nanoparticles for effective intracellular delivery of cytochrome C in cancer therapy. RSC Chem Biol 2024; 5:249-261. [PMID: 38456040 PMCID: PMC10915965 DOI: 10.1039/d3cb00090g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/19/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Intracellular protein delivery shows promise as a selective and specific approach to cancer therapy. However, a major challenge is posed by delivering proteins into the target cells. Despite the development of nanoparticle (NP)-based approaches, a versatile and biocompatible delivery system that can deliver active therapeutic cargo into the cytosol while escaping endosome degradation remains elusive. In order to overcome these challenges, a polymeric nanocarrier was prepared using cationic dextrin (CD), a biocompatible and biodegradable polymer, to encapsulate and deliver cytochrome C (Cyt C), a therapeutic protein. The challenge of endosomal escape of the nanoparticles was addressed by co-delivering the synthesized NP construct with chloroquine, which enhances the endosomal escape of the therapeutic protein. No toxicity was observed for both CD NPs and chloroquine at the concentration tested in this study. Spectroscopic investigations confirmed that the delivered protein, Cyt C, was structurally and functionally active. Additionally, the delivered Cyt C was able to induce apoptosis by causing depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane in HeLa cells, as evidenced by flow cytometry and microscopic observations. Our findings demonstrate that an engineered delivery system using CD NPs is a promising platform in nanomedicine for protein delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankita Sarkar
- School of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi Kamand Mandi 175075 Himachal Pradesh India
| | - Sanchita Sarkhel
- School of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi Kamand Mandi 175075 Himachal Pradesh India
| | - Deepali Bisht
- School of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi Kamand Mandi 175075 Himachal Pradesh India
| | - Amit Jaiswal
- School of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi Kamand Mandi 175075 Himachal Pradesh India
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He SF, Han WC, Shao YY, Zhang HB, Hong WX, Yang QH, Zhang YQ, He RR, Sun J. Iridium(III) complex induces apoptosis in HeLa cells by regulating mitochondrial and PI3K/AKT signaling pathways: In vitro and in vivo experiments. Bioorg Chem 2023; 141:106867. [PMID: 37734195 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.106867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
Cyclometalated iridium complexes with mitochondrial targeting show great potential as substitutes for platinum-based complexes because of their strong anti-cancer properties. Three novel cyclometalated iridium(III) compounds were synthesized and evaluated in five different cell lines as part of the ongoing systematic investigations of these compounds. The complexes were prepared using 4,7-dichloro-1,10-phenanthroline ligands. The cytotoxicity of complexes Ir1-Ir3 towards HeLa cells was shown to be high, with IC50 values of 0.83±0.06, 4.73±0.11, and 4.95±0.62 μM, respectively. Complex Ir1 could be ingested by HeLa cells in 3 h and has shown high selectivity toward mitochondria. Subsequent investigations demonstrated that Ir1 triggered apoptosis in HeLa cells by augmenting the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), reducing the mitochondrial membrane potential, and depleting ATP levels. Furthermore, the movement of cells was significantly suppressed and the progression of the cell cycle was arrested in the G0/G1 phase following the administration of Ir1. The Western blot analysis demonstrated that the induction of apoptosis in HeLa cells by Ir1 involves the activation of the mitochondria-dependent channel and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. No significant cytotoxicity was observed in zebrafish embryos at concentrations less than or equal to 16 µM, e.g., survival rate and developmental abnormalities. In vivo, antitumor assay demonstrated that Ir1 suppressed tumor growth in mice. Therefore, our work shows that complex Ir1 could be a promising candidate for developing novel antitumor drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu-Fen He
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Wei-Chao Han
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Ying-Ying Shao
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Han-Bin Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Wen-Xin Hong
- Department of Health, Dongguan Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital, Dongguan 523129, China
| | - Qiu-Hong Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China
| | - Yu-Qing Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China
| | - Rui-Rong He
- Department of Pharmacy, The Tenth Affiliated Hospital of Southern Medical University (Dongguan People's Hospital), Dongguan 523059, China.
| | - Jing Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China.
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Cytochrome c in cancer therapy and prognosis. Biosci Rep 2022; 42:232225. [PMID: 36479932 PMCID: PMC9780037 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20222171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome c (cyt c) is an electron transporter of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Upon permeabilization of the mitochondrial outer membrane, cyt c is released into the cytoplasm, where it triggers the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis. Cytoplasmic cyt c can further reach the bloodstream. Apoptosis inhibition is one of the hallmarks of cancer and its induction in tumors is a widely used therapeutic approach. Apoptosis inhibition and induction correlate with decreased and increased serum levels of cyt c, respectively. The quantification of cyt c in the serum is useful in the monitoring of patient response to chemotherapy, with potential prognosis value. Several highly sensitive biosensors have been developed for the quantification of cyt c levels in human serum. Moreover, the delivery of exogenous cyt c to the cytoplasm of cancer cells is an effective approach for inducing their apoptosis. Similarly, several protein-based and nanoparticle-based systems have been developed for the therapeutic delivery of cyt c to cancer cells. As such, cyt c is a human protein with promising value in cancer prognosis and therapy. In addition, its thermal stability can be extended through PEGylation and ionic liquid storage. These processes could contribute to enhancing its therapeutic exploitation in clinical facilities with limited refrigeration conditions. Here, I discuss these research lines and how their timely conjunction can advance cancer therapy and prognosis.
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Dominguez-Martinez I, Joaquin-Ovalle F, Ferrer-Acosta Y, Griebenow KH. Folate-Decorated Cross-Linked Cytochrome c Nanoparticles for Active Targeting of Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma (NSCLC). Pharmaceutics 2022. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14030490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The folate receptor alpha (FR), which is overexpressed in solid tumors including NSCLC, can be utilized for active tumor targeting to afford more effective cancer therapies. In this context, cytochrome c (Cyt c) has drawn attention to cancer research because it is non-toxic, yet, when delivered to the cytoplasm of cancer cells, can kill them by inducing apoptosis. Cyt c nanoparticles (NPs, 169 ± 9 nm) were obtained by solvent precipitation with acetonitrile, and stabilized by reversible homo-bifunctional crosslinking to accomplish a Cyt-c-based drug delivery system that combines stimulus-responsive release and active targeting. Cyt c was released under intracellular redox conditions, due to an S–S bond in the NPs linker, while NPs remained intact without any release under extracellular conditions. The NP surface was decorated with a hydrophilic folic acid–polyethylene glycol (FA–PEG) polymer for active targeting. The FA-decorated NPs specifically recognized and killed cancer cells (IC50 = 47.46 µg/mL) that overexpressed FR, but showed no toxicity against FR-negative cells. Confocal microscopy confirmed the preferential uptake and apoptosis induction of our NPs by FR-positive cancer cells. In vivo experiments using a Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) mouse model showed visible NP accumulation within the tumor and inhibited the growth of LLC tumors.
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Folate-Decorated Cross-Linked Cytochrome c Nanoparticles for Active Targeting of Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma (NSCLC). Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14030490. [PMID: 35335867 PMCID: PMC8951294 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14030490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The folate receptor alpha (FR), which is overexpressed in solid tumors including NSCLC, can be utilized for active tumor targeting to afford more effective cancer therapies. In this context, cytochrome c (Cyt c) has drawn attention to cancer research because it is non-toxic, yet, when delivered to the cytoplasm of cancer cells, can kill them by inducing apoptosis. Cyt c nanoparticles (NPs, 169 ± 9 nm) were obtained by solvent precipitation with acetonitrile, and stabilized by reversible homo-bifunctional crosslinking to accomplish a Cyt-c-based drug delivery system that combines stimulus-responsive release and active targeting. Cyt c was released under intracellular redox conditions, due to an S–S bond in the NPs linker, while NPs remained intact without any release under extracellular conditions. The NP surface was decorated with a hydrophilic folic acid–polyethylene glycol (FA–PEG) polymer for active targeting. The FA-decorated NPs specifically recognized and killed cancer cells (IC50 = 47.46 µg/mL) that overexpressed FR, but showed no toxicity against FR-negative cells. Confocal microscopy confirmed the preferential uptake and apoptosis induction of our NPs by FR-positive cancer cells. In vivo experiments using a Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) mouse model showed visible NP accumulation within the tumor and inhibited the growth of LLC tumors.
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Dominguez-Martinez I, Joaquin-Ovalle F, Ferrer-Acosta Y, Griebenow KH. Folate-Decorated Cross-Linked Cytochrome c Nanoparticles for Active Targeting of Non-Small Cell Lung Carcinoma (NSCLC). Pharmaceutics 2022. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics14030490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The folate receptor alpha (FR), which is overexpressed in solid tumors including NSCLC, can be utilized for active tumor targeting to afford more effective cancer therapies. In this context, cytochrome c (Cyt c) has drawn attention to cancer research because it is non-toxic, yet, when delivered to the cytoplasm of cancer cells, can kill them by inducing apoptosis. Cyt c nanoparticles (NPs, 169 ± 9 nm) were obtained by solvent precipitation with acetonitrile, and stabilized by reversible homo-bifunctional crosslinking to accomplish a Cyt-c-based drug delivery system that combines stimulus-responsive release and active targeting. Cyt c was released under intracellular redox conditions, due to an S–S bond in the NPs linker, while NPs remained intact without any release under extracellular conditions. The NP surface was decorated with a hydrophilic folic acid–polyethylene glycol (FA–PEG) polymer for active targeting. The FA-decorated NPs specifically recognized and killed cancer cells (IC50 = 47.46 µg/mL) that overexpressed FR, but showed no toxicity against FR-negative cells. Confocal microscopy confirmed the preferential uptake and apoptosis induction of our NPs by FR-positive cancer cells. In vivo experiments using a Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) mouse model showed visible NP accumulation within the tumor and inhibited the growth of LLC tumors.
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Delinois LJ, De León-Vélez O, Vázquez-Medina A, Vélez-Cabrera A, Marrero-Sánchez A, Nieves-Escobar C, Alfonso-Cano D, Caraballo-Rodríguez D, Rodriguez-Ortiz J, Acosta-Mercado J, Benjamín-Rivera JA, González-González K, Fernández-Adorno K, Santiago-Pagán L, Delgado-Vergara R, Torres-Ávila X, Maser-Figueroa A, Grajales-Avilés G, Miranda Méndez GI, Santiago-Pagán J, Nieves-Santiago M, Álvarez-Carrillo V, Griebenow K, Tinoco AD. Cytochrome c: Using Biological Insight toward Engineering an Optimized Anticancer Biodrug. INORGANICS 2021; 9:83. [PMID: 35978717 PMCID: PMC9380692 DOI: 10.3390/inorganics9110083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The heme protein cytochrome c (Cyt c) plays pivotal roles in cellular life and death processes. In the respiratory chain of mitochondria, it serves as an electron transfer protein, contributing to the proliferation of healthy cells. In the cell cytoplasm, it activates intrinsic apoptosis to terminate damaged cells. Insight into these mechanisms and the associated physicochemical properties and biomolecular interactions of Cyt c informs on the anticancer therapeutic potential of the protein, especially in its ability to subvert the current limitations of small molecule-based chemotherapy. In this review, we explore the development of Cyt c as an anticancer drug by identifying cancer types that would be receptive to the cytotoxicity of the protein and factors that can be finetuned to enhance its apoptotic potency. To this end, some information is obtained by characterizing known drugs that operate, in part, by triggering Cyt c induced apoptosis. The application of different smart drug delivery systems is surveyed to highlight important features for maintaining Cyt c stability and activity and improving its specificity for cancer cells and high drug payload release while recognizing the continuing limitations. This work serves to elucidate on the optimization of the strategies to translate Cyt c to the clinical market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis J. Delinois
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Omar De León-Vélez
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Adriana Vázquez-Medina
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Alondra Vélez-Cabrera
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Amanda Marrero-Sánchez
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | | | - Daniela Alfonso-Cano
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | | | - Jael Rodriguez-Ortiz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Jemily Acosta-Mercado
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Josué A. Benjamín-Rivera
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Kiara González-González
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Kysha Fernández-Adorno
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Lisby Santiago-Pagán
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Rafael Delgado-Vergara
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Xaiomy Torres-Ávila
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Andrea Maser-Figueroa
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | | | | | - Javier Santiago-Pagán
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Miguel Nieves-Santiago
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Vanessa Álvarez-Carrillo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Kai Griebenow
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
| | - Arthur D. Tinoco
- Department of Chemistry, University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus, Río Piedras, PR 00931, USA
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Kocabey S, Ekim Kocabey A, Schneiter R, Rüegg C. Membrane-Interacting DNA Nanotubes Induce Cancer Cell Death. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11082003. [PMID: 34443832 PMCID: PMC8397952 DOI: 10.3390/nano11082003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Revised: 07/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
DNA nanotechnology offers to build nanoscale structures with defined chemistries to precisely position biomolecules or drugs for selective cell targeting and drug delivery. Owing to the negatively charged nature of DNA, for delivery purposes, DNA is frequently conjugated with hydrophobic moieties, positively charged polymers/peptides and cell surface receptor-recognizing molecules or antibodies. Here, we designed and assembled cholesterol-modified DNA nanotubes to interact with cancer cells and conjugated them with cytochrome c to induce cancer cell apoptosis. By flow cytometry and confocal microscopy, we observed that DNA nanotubes efficiently bound to the plasma membrane as a function of the number of conjugated cholesterol moieties. The complex was taken up by the cells and localized to the endosomal compartment. Cholesterol-modified DNA nanotubes, but not unmodified ones, increased membrane permeability, caspase activation and cell death. Irreversible inhibition of caspase activity with a caspase inhibitor, however, only partially prevented cell death. Cytochrome c-conjugated DNA nanotubes were also efficiently taken up but did not increase the rate of cell death. These results demonstrate that cholesterol-modified DNA nanotubes induce cancer cell death associated with increased cell membrane permeability and are only partially dependent on caspase activity, consistent with a combined form of apoptotic and necrotic cell death. DNA nanotubes may be further developed as primary cytotoxic agents, or drug delivery vehicles, through cholesterol-mediated cellular membrane interactions and uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samet Kocabey
- Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 18, PER17, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
- Correspondence: (S.K.); (C.R.)
| | - Aslihan Ekim Kocabey
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, PER05, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (A.E.K.); (R.S.)
| | - Roger Schneiter
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 10, PER05, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland; (A.E.K.); (R.S.)
| | - Curzio Rüegg
- Department of Oncology, Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Science and Medicine, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 18, PER17, 1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
- Correspondence: (S.K.); (C.R.)
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