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McNamara C, O'Shea A, Rao P, Ure A, Ayarde-Henríquez L, Ghaani MR, Ross A, Dooley S. Steady states and kinetic modelling of the acid-catalysed ethanolysis of glucose, cellulose, and corn cob to ethyl levulinate. ENERGY ADVANCES 2024; 3:1439-1458. [PMID: 38883558 PMCID: PMC11171464 DOI: 10.1039/d4ya00043a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024]
Abstract
Ethyl levulinate is a promising advanced biofuel and platform chemical that can be derived from lignocellulosic biomass by ethanolysis processes. It can be blended with both diesel and gasoline and, thus, used in conventional engines and infrastructure. Previously, it has been shown that alkyl levulinate/alcohol/alkyl ether mixtures exhibit significantly enhanced fuel properties relative to any of the individual fuel components, particularly when blended with conventional hydrocarbon liquid fuels. Consequently, this study specifically quantifies the three primary components of the alcoholysis reaction mixture: ethyl levulinate, diethyl ether, and ethanol. The steady state and kinetic phase fractions of ethyl levulinate and diethyl ether produced from glucose, cellulose, and corn cob with 0.5-2 mass% sulphuric acid in ethanol are determined for 5, 10, and 20 mass% of feedstock at 150 °C. Knowledge of the steady state equilibrium mixture fraction is specifically targeted due to its importance in assessing commercial-scale production and in modelling analysis as: (i) it defines the maximum yield possible at a given condition, and (ii) it is equitable to the minimum free energy state. Maximum steady state yields (mass%) of ethyl levulinate of (46.6 ± 3.7), (50.2 ± 5.4), and (27.0 ± 1.9)% are determined for glucose, cellulose, and corn cob, respectively. The conversion of glucose and cellulose to ethyl levulinate in the presence of ethanol and sulphuric acid is shown to be a catalytic process, where the ethyl levulinate yield is not dependent on the acid concentration. For corn-cob biomass, in a new and contrasting finding, the ethyl levulinate yield is shown to strongly depend on the acid concentration. This effect is also observed in the fractions of diethyl ether formed, providing strong evidence that the hydrogen cation is not being replenished in the ethanolysis process and the overall reaction with corncob is not wholly catalytic. Thus, for the acid catalysed alcoholysis of lignocellulosic biomass, acid concentration must be scaled with feedstock concentration. The critical corn cob-to-acid ratio that maximises ethyl levulinate yields while minimizing the formation of undesired co-products (diethyl ether) is in the range 10-20 : 1 at 150 °C. A detailed, hierarchical, mass-conserved chemical kinetic model capable of accurately predicting the relative abundance of the three primary components of the ethanolysis reaction: ethyl levulinate, diethyl ether, and ethanol, from the biochemical composition of the feedstock, is elucidated and validated.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ailís O'Shea
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin Dublin 2 Ireland
| | - Prajwal Rao
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin Dublin 2 Ireland
| | - Andrew Ure
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin Dublin 2 Ireland
| | | | - Mohammad Reza Ghaani
- School of Engineering, Department of Civil, Structural & Environmental Engineering, Trinity College Dublin Dublin 2 Ireland
| | - Andrew Ross
- School of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Leeds 209 Clarendon Road Leeds LS2 9JT UK
| | - Stephen Dooley
- School of Physics, Trinity College Dublin Dublin 2 Ireland
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Fulignati S, Di Fidio N, Antonetti C, Raspolli Galletti AM, Licursi D. Challenges and Opportunities in the Catalytic Synthesis of Diphenolic Acid and Evaluation of Its Application Potential. Molecules 2023; 29:126. [PMID: 38202709 PMCID: PMC10779658 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29010126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Diphenolic acid, or 4,4-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)pentanoic acid, represents one of the potentially most interesting bio-products obtainable from the levulinic acid supply-chain. It represents a valuable candidate for the replacement of bisphenol A, which is strongly questioned for its toxicological issues. Diphenolic acid synthesis involves the condensation reaction between phenol and levulinic acid and requires the presence of a Brønsted acid as a catalyst. In this review, the state of the art related to the catalytic issues of its synthesis have been critically discussed, with particular attention to the heterogeneous systems, the reference benchmark being represented by the homogeneous acids. The main opportunities in the field of heterogeneous catalysis are deeply discussed, as well as the bottlenecks to be overcome to facilitate diphenolic acid production on an industrial scale. The regioselectivity of the reaction is a critical point because only the p,p'-isomer is of industrial interest; thus, several strategies aiming at the improvement of the selectivity towards this isomer are considered. The future potential of adopting alkyl levulinates, instead of levulinic acid, as starting materials for the synthesis of new classes of biopolymers, such as new epoxy and phenolic resins and polycarbonates, is also briefly considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Fulignati
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (S.F.); (N.D.F.); (C.A.); (D.L.)
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Reattività Chimica e Catalisi (CIRCC), Via Celso Ulpiani 27, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Nicola Di Fidio
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (S.F.); (N.D.F.); (C.A.); (D.L.)
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Reattività Chimica e Catalisi (CIRCC), Via Celso Ulpiani 27, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Claudia Antonetti
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (S.F.); (N.D.F.); (C.A.); (D.L.)
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Reattività Chimica e Catalisi (CIRCC), Via Celso Ulpiani 27, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Raspolli Galletti
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (S.F.); (N.D.F.); (C.A.); (D.L.)
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Reattività Chimica e Catalisi (CIRCC), Via Celso Ulpiani 27, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Domenico Licursi
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry, University of Pisa, Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 13, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (S.F.); (N.D.F.); (C.A.); (D.L.)
- Consorzio Interuniversitario Reattività Chimica e Catalisi (CIRCC), Via Celso Ulpiani 27, 70126 Bari, Italy
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Galletti AMR, Lorè R, Licursi D, Di Fidio N, Antonetti C, Fulignati S. Insights on butyl levulinate bio-blendstock: from model sugars to paper mill waste cellulose as feedstocks for a sustainable catalytic butanolysis process. Catal Today 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2023.114054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
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Novel Challenges on the Catalytic Synthesis of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) from Real Feedstocks. Catalysts 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/catal12121664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The depletion of fossil resources makes the transition towards renewable ones more urgent. For this purpose, the synthesis of strategic platform-chemicals, such as 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), represents a fundamental challenge for the development of a feasible bio-refinery. HMF perfectly deals with this necessity, because it can be obtained from the hexose fraction of biomass. Thanks to its high reactivity, it can be exploited for the synthesis of renewable monomers, solvents, and bio-fuels. Sustainable HMF synthesis requires the use of waste biomasses, rather than model compounds such as monosaccharides or polysaccharides, making its production more economically advantageous from an industrial perspective. However, the production of HMF from real feedstocks generally suffers from scarce selectivity, due to their complex chemical composition and HMF instability. On this basis, different strategies have been adopted to maximize the HMF yield. Under this perspective, the properties of the catalytic system, as well as the choice of a suitable solvent and the addition of an eventual pretreatment of the biomass, represent key aspects of the optimization of HMF synthesis. On this basis, the present review summarizes and critically discusses the most recent and attractive strategies for HMF production from real feedstocks, focusing on the smartest catalytic systems and the overall sustainability of the adopted reaction conditions.
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Lopes NPG, da Silva MJ. Cesium partially exchanged heteropolyacid salts: efficient solid catalysts to produce bioadditives from the levulinic acid esterification with alkyl alcohols. REACTION KINETICS MECHANISMS AND CATALYSIS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11144-022-02310-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Silva MJ, Andrade da Silva PH, Ferreira SO, Silva RC, Brusiquezi CGO. How the Cobalt Position in the Keggin Anion Impacts the Activity of Tungstate Catalysts in the Furfural Acetalization with Alkyl Alcohols. ChemistrySelect 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202104174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marcio José Silva
- Chemistry department Federal University of Vicosa Avenue P. H. Rolfs University campus Vicosa, zipcode 36570-000 Minas Gerais State Brazil
| | - Pedro Henrique Andrade da Silva
- Chemistry department Federal University of Vicosa Avenue P. H. Rolfs University campus Vicosa, zipcode 36570-000 Minas Gerais State Brazil
| | - Sukarno Olavo Ferreira
- Physic department Federal University of Vicosa Avenue P. H. Rolfs University campus Vicosa, zipcode 36570-000 Minas Gerais State Brazil
| | - Rene Chagas Silva
- Physic department Federal University of Vicosa Avenue P. H. Rolfs University campus Vicosa, zipcode 36570-000 Minas Gerais State Brazil
| | - Carlos Giovani Oliveira Brusiquezi
- Chemistry department Federal University of Minas Gerais Avenue Antonio Carlos University campus Belo Horizonte, zipcode 31270-901 Minas Gerais State Brazil
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Wang Y, Nuzhdin AL, Shamanaev IV, Kodenev EG, Gerasimov EY, Bukhtiyarova MV, Bukhtiyarova GA. Effect of Phosphorus Precursor, Reduction Temperature, and Support on the Catalytic Properties of Nickel Phosphide Catalysts in Continuous-Flow Reductive Amination of Ethyl Levulinate. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031106. [PMID: 35163029 PMCID: PMC8835280 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Levulinic acid and its esters (e.g., ethyl levulinate, EL) are platform chemicals derived from biomass feedstocks that can be converted to a variety of valuable compounds. Reductive amination of levulinates with primary amines and H2 over heterogeneous catalysts is an attractive method for the synthesis of N-alkyl-5-methyl-2-pyrrolidones, which are an environmentally friendly alternative to the common solvent N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP). In the present work, the catalytic properties of the different nickel phosphide catalysts supported on SiO2 and Al2O3 were studied in a reductive amination of EL with n-hexylamine to N-hexyl-5-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (HMP) in a flow reactor. The influence of the phosphorus precursor, reduction temperature, reactant ratio, and addition of acidic diluters on the catalyst performance was investigated. The Ni2P/SiO2 catalyst prepared using (NH4)2HPO4 and reduced at 600 °C provides the highest HMP yield, which reaches 98%. Although the presence of acid sites and a sufficient hydrogenating ability are important factors determining the pyrrolidone yield, the selectivity also depends on the specific features of EL adsorption on active catalytic sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yazhou Wang
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia;
| | - Alexey L. Nuzhdin
- Boreskov Institute of Catalysis SB RAS, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (I.V.S.); (E.G.K.); (E.Y.G.); (M.V.B.); (G.A.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-383-3269-410
| | - Ivan V. Shamanaev
- Boreskov Institute of Catalysis SB RAS, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (I.V.S.); (E.G.K.); (E.Y.G.); (M.V.B.); (G.A.B.)
| | - Evgeny G. Kodenev
- Boreskov Institute of Catalysis SB RAS, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (I.V.S.); (E.G.K.); (E.Y.G.); (M.V.B.); (G.A.B.)
| | - Evgeny Yu. Gerasimov
- Boreskov Institute of Catalysis SB RAS, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (I.V.S.); (E.G.K.); (E.Y.G.); (M.V.B.); (G.A.B.)
| | - Marina V. Bukhtiyarova
- Boreskov Institute of Catalysis SB RAS, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (I.V.S.); (E.G.K.); (E.Y.G.); (M.V.B.); (G.A.B.)
| | - Galina A. Bukhtiyarova
- Boreskov Institute of Catalysis SB RAS, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia; (I.V.S.); (E.G.K.); (E.Y.G.); (M.V.B.); (G.A.B.)
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Laurenza AG, Losito O, Casiello M, Fusco C, Nacci A, Pantone V, D'Accolti L. Valorization of cigarette butts for synthesis of levulinic acid as top value-added chemicals. Sci Rep 2021; 11:15775. [PMID: 34349213 PMCID: PMC8338950 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95361-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Unprecedented in the literature, levulinic acid (LA), one of the top value-added intermediates of chemical industry, is obtained from cigarette butts as cellulose feedstock by means of a one-pot hydrothermal process carried out at 200 °C for 2 h and catalysed by phosphoric acid. The protocol avoids the use of more aggressive and toxic H2SO4 and HCl, that are generally employed on several cellulose sources (e.g. sludge paper), thus minimizing corrosion phenomena of plants. Neither chemical pre-treatment of butts nor specific purification procedure of LA are required. Notably, by simply modifying acid catalyst (e.g. using CH3COOH), another top value-added fine chemical such as 5-hydroxymethylfuraldehyde (HMF) is obtained, thus widening the scope of the method. Being cigarette filters a waste available in quantities of megatonnes per year, they represent an unlimited at no cost source of cellulose, thus enabling the up-scale to an industrial level of LA production.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Onofrio Losito
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Bari "A. Moro", Via Orabona 4, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Michele Casiello
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Bari "A. Moro", Via Orabona 4, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Caterina Fusco
- Bari Section, CNR-Istituto di Chimica dei Composti Organometallici (ICCOM), Via Orabona 4, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Angelo Nacci
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Bari "A. Moro", Via Orabona 4, 70126, Bari, Italy.,Bari Section, CNR-Istituto di Chimica dei Composti Organometallici (ICCOM), Via Orabona 4, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Lucia D'Accolti
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Bari "A. Moro", Via Orabona 4, 70126, Bari, Italy. .,Bari Section, CNR-Istituto di Chimica dei Composti Organometallici (ICCOM), Via Orabona 4, 70126, Bari, Italy.
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Intensification of Processes for the Production of Ethyl Levulinate Using AlCl3·6H2O. ENERGIES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/en14051273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A process for obtaining ethyl levulinate through the direct esterification of levulinic acid and ethanol using AlCl3·6H2O as a catalyst was investigated. AlCl3·6H2O was very active in promoting the reaction and, the correspondent kinetic and thermodynamic data were determined. The reaction followed a homogeneous second-order reversible reaction model: in the temperature range of 318–348 K, Ea was 56.3 kJ·K−1·mol−1, whereas Keq was in the field 2.37–3.31. The activity of AlCl3·6H2O was comparable to that of conventional mineral acids. Besides, AlCl3·6H2O also induced a separation of phases in which ethyl levulinate resulted mainly (>98 wt%) dissolved into the organic upper layer, well separated by most of the co-formed water, which decanted in the bottom. The catalyst resulted wholly dissolved into the aqueous phase (>95 wt%), allowing at the end of a reaction cycle, complete recovery, and possible reuse for several runs. With the increase of the AlCl3·6H2O content (from 1 to 5 mol%), the reaction proceeded fast, and the phases’ separation improved. Such a behavior eventually results in an intensification of processes of reaction and separation of products and catalyst in a single step. The use of AlCl3·6H2O leads to a significant reduction of energy consumed for the final achievement of ethyl levulinate, and a simplification of line-processes can be achieved.
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