Research Progress on Catalytic Water Splitting Based on Polyoxometalate/Semiconductor Composites

Highly Efficient Photocatalysts: Polyoxometalate Synthons Enable Tailored CdS-MoS2 Morphologies and Enhanced H2 Evolution

The development of photocatalysts toward highly efficient H₂ evolution reactions is a feasible strategy to achieve the effective conversion of solar energy and meet the increasing demand for new energy. To this end, we prepared two different CdS-MoS₂ photocatalysts with unique morphologies ranging from hexagonal prisms to tetragonal nanotubes by carefully tuning polyoxometalate synthons. These two photocatalysts, namely, CdS-MoS₂-1 and CdS-MoS₂-2, both exhibited remarkable photocatalytic efficiency in H₂ generation, among which CdS-MoS₂-2 showed superior performance. In fact, the best catalytic hydrogen desorption rate of CdS-MoS₂-2 is as high as 1815.5 μmol g^-1 h^-1. Such performance is superior to twice that of single CdS and almost four times that of pure MoS₂. This obvious enhancement can be accredited to the highly open nanotube morphology and highly dispersed heterometallic composition of CdS-MoS₂-2, which represents an excellent example of the highest noble-metal-free H₂ evolution photocatalysts reported so far. Taken together, these findings suggest that the development of highly dispersed heterometallic catalysts is an auspicious route to realize highly efficient conversion of solar energy and that CdS-MoS₂-2 represents a major advance in this field.

Incorporating Ni-Polyoxometalate into the S-Scheme Heterojunction to Accelerate Charge Separation and Resist Photocorrosion for Promoting Photocatalytic Activity and Stability

The emerging polyoxometalate (POM) nanomaterials are transition metal oxygen anion clusters with d⁰ electronic configurations, which could be attractive and potential photocatalysts. Hence, a nickel (Ni)-substituted polyoxometalate K₆Na₄[Ni₄(H₂O)₂(PW₉O₃₄)₂]·32H₂O (Ni₄POM)-incorporating step (S)-scheme heterojunction was developed to promote photocatalytic activity and stability in H₂ and H₂O₂ production. The multielectron transfer through variable valence metal centers in Ni₄POM would facilitate the recombination of invalid charges through the S-scheme pathway. Moreover, incorporating Ni₄POM into the S-scheme heterojunction can broaden the light absorption range and meanwhile lead to resistance to photocorrosion to promote the optical and chemical stability of Cd_0.5Zn_0.5S (CZS). The optimized CZSNi-70 exhibited a H₂ evolution rate of 42.32 mmol g^-1 h^-1 under visible-light irradiation with an apparent quantum yield of 32.27% at 420 nm and a H₂O₂ production rate of 295.4 μmol L^-1 h^-1 under 420 nm light-emitting diode irradiation. This work can provide a new view for the development of transition metal-substituted POM-based stable and efficient S-scheme photocatalysts.

Proton Affinity in the Chemistry of Beta-Octamolybdate: HPLC-ICP-AES, NMR and Structural Studies

The affinity of [β-Mo₈O₂₆]^4- toward different proton sources has been studied in various conditions. The proposed sites for proton coordination were highlighted with single crystal X-ray diffraction (SCXRD) analysis of (Bu₄N)₃[β-{Ag(py-NH₂)Mo₈O₂₆]}] (1) and from analysis of reported structures. Structural rearrangement of [β-Mo₈O₂₆]^4- as a direct response to protonation was studied in solution with ⁹⁵Mo NMR and HPLC-ICP-AES techniques. A new type of proton transfer reaction between (Bu₄N)₄[β-Mo₈O₂₆] and (Bu₄N)₄H₂[V₁₀O₂₈] in DMSO results in both polyoxometalates transformation into [V₂Mo₄O₁₉]^4-, which was confirmed by the ⁹⁵Mo, ⁵¹V NMR and HPLC-ICP-AES techniques. The same type of reaction with [H₄SiW₁₂O₄₀] in DMSO leads to metal redistribution with formation of [W₂Mo₄O₁₉]^2-.

NMR Relaxivities of Paramagnetic Lanthanide-Containing Polyoxometalates

The current trend for ultra-high-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technologies opens up new routes in clinical diagnostic imaging as well as in material imaging applications. MRI selectivity is further improved by using contrast agents (CAs), which enhance the image contrast and improve specificity by the paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE) mechanism. Generally, the efficacy of a CA at a given magnetic field is measured by its longitudinal and transverse relaxivities r1 and r2, i.e., the longitudinal and transverse relaxation rates T1-1 and T2-1 normalized to CA concentration. However, even though basic NMR sensitivity and resolution become better in stronger fields, r1 of classic CA generally decreases, which often causes a reduction of the image contrast. In this regard, there is a growing interest in the development of new contrast agents that would be suitable to work at higher magnetic fields. One of the strategies to increase imaging contrast at high magnetic field is to inspect other paramagnetic ions than the commonly used Gd(III)-based CAs. For lanthanides, the magnetic moment can be higher than that of the isotropic Gd(III) ion. In addition, the symmetry of electronic ground state influences the PRE properties of a compound apart from diverse correlation times. In this work, PRE of water 1H has been investigated over a wide range of magnetic fields for aqueous solutions of the lanthanide containing polyoxometalates [DyIII(H2O)4GeW11O39]5- (Dy-W11), [ErIII(H2O)3GeW11O39]5- (Er-W11) and [{ErIII(H2O)(CH3COO)(P2W17O61)}2]16- (Er2-W34) over a wide range of frequencies from 20 MHz to 1.4 GHz. Their relaxivities r1 and r2 increase with increasing applied fields. These results indicate that the three chosen POM systems are potential candidates for contrast agents, especially at high magnetic fields.

Recent Trends in Graphitic Carbon Nitride-Based Binary and Ternary Heterostructured Electrodes for Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting

The graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) is a class of two-dimensional layered material. The ever-growing research on this fascinating material is due to its unique visible light absorption, surface, electrocatalytic, and other physicochemical properties that can be useful to different energy conversion and storage applications. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting reaction is one of the promising applications of g-C3N4, wherein it acts as a durable catalyst support material. Very recently, the construction of g-C3N4-based binary and ternary heterostructures exhibited superior PEC water splitting performance owing to its reduced reunion of e-/h+ pairs and the fast transfer of charge carriers at the heterostructure interface. This review compiles the recent advances and challenges on g-C3N4-based heterostructured photocatalysts for the PEC water splitting reaction. After an overview of the available literature, we presume that g-C3N4-based photocatalysts showed enhanced PEC water splitting performance. Therefore, it is believed that these materials have tremendous opportunities to act as durable catalyst support for energy-related applications. However, researchers also considered several limitations and challenges for using C3N4 as an efficient catalyst support material that must be addressed. This review article provides an overview of the fundamental principles of PEC water splitting, the current PEC water splitting research trends on g-C3N4-based binary and ternary heterostructured electrodes with respect to different electrolytes, and the other key factors influencing their photoelectrochemical performance. Finally, the future research direction with several recommendations to improve the photocatalytic efficiency of these materials is also provided at the end.

Microwave-driven hydrogen production (MDHP) from water and activated carbons (ACs). Application to wastewaters and seawater

This article reports on low-temperature steam reforming and water–gas shift processes to generate hydrogen efficiently when water is passed through microwave-heated activated carbon (AC) particulates, in contrast to conventional steam reforming that is not particularly efficient at temperatures around 600 °C. The microwave-driven method performed efficiently at this temperature producing hydrogen with yields of 70% or more, as a result of the microscopic local microwave heating of the AC particulates. To the extent that the activated carbon is produced from plant biomass-related raw materials, the carbon dioxide produced is carbon neutral. Conditions for hydrogen generation were optimized with regard to the size of the AC particles, the water flow rate, and the size of the reactor. For practical applications of this microwave-based method, hydrogen was also generated efficiently with yields of 75–80% when using spent activated carbons (large size distribution) and model contaminated wastewaters and artificial seawater; significant energy was saved under the conditions used. The re-use of spent ACs eliminates the need for their disposal after being used in water and sewage treatments. In addition, the presence of any organic matter in wastewaters is also a likely effective source of hydrogen (yields, 75–85%). And not least, although generation of hydrogen from seawater is a difficult electrolytic process, the microwave method proved to be an attractive and efficient technology toward hydrogen generation from seawater with yields of 85 to 90%. Addition of Pt deposits on the activated carbon support, however, provided no advantages over pristine AC particulates.

We report on the low-temperature steam reforming and water–gas shift processes to generate H₂ efficiently from water passed through MW-heated activated carbon (AC) particles, contrary to the inefficient conventional steam reforming at T ≈ 600 °C.

Sulfur-Doped BiOCl with Enhanced Light Absorption and Photocatalytic Water Oxidation Activity

Photocatalysis is a powerful strategy to address energy and environmental concerns. Sulfur-doped BiOCl was prepared through a facial hydrothermal method to improve the photocatalytic performance. Experimental results and theoretical calculations demonstrated that the band structure of the sulfur-doped BiOCl was optimally regulated and the light absorption range was expanded. It showed excellent visible-light photocatalytic water oxidation properties with a rate of 141.7 μmol h-1 g-1 (almost 44 times of that of the commercial BiOCl) with Pt as co-catalyst.

Fabrication of Six Manganese Containing Polyoxometalate Modified Graphite C3N4 Nanosheets Catalysts Used to Catalyze Water Decomposition

With the increase in gas population, the demand for clean and renewable energy is increasing. Hydrogen energy has a high combustion conversion energy while water is its combustion product. In recent years, a way to convert water into hydrogen and oxygen has been found by human beings inspired by plant photosynthesis. However, water decomposition consumes a significant amount of energy and is expensive. People expect to obtain a water decomposition catalyst with low cost and high efficiency. This work selected a six-manganese containing polyoxometalate with a similar structure characteristic to photosynthesizing PSII to fabricate with graphite C3N4 nanosheets for the construction of composite film (Mn6SiW/g-C3N4NSs) electrode via layer by layer self-assembly technology, which was used for the photo-electrochemical decomposition of water under visible light conditions. The binary composite film electrode displayed good catalytic efficiency. The photoelectric density of the composite electrode is 46 μA/cm2 (at 1.23 V vs. Ag/AgCl) and 239 μA/cm2 (at 1.5 V vs. Ag/AgCl). Compared with the g-C3N4NSs electrode alone, the photoelectric density of the composite electrode increased by 1 time. The reason is attributed to the fact that Mn6SiW has a similar structure characteristic to photosynthesizing PSII and high electron transferability. The construction of the composite film containing low-cost Mn6SiW to modify g-C3N4NSs can effectively improve the photocatalytic decomposition of water, thus this study provides valuable reference information for the development of low-cost and high-performance photo-electrocatalytic materials.