Organocatalysis: Fundamentals and Comparisons to Metal and Enzyme Catalysis

A theoretical study of the mechanism of cationic polymerization of isobutylene catalysed by EtAlCl2/t-BuCl with bis(2-chloroethyl)ether in hexanes

The mechanism of cationic polymerization of isobutylene catalyzed by t-BuCl/ethylaluminum dichloride (EADC) combined with bis(2-chloroethyl)ether (CEE) in n-hexane solvent has been investigated using ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) and metadynamics (MTD) simulations. The results indicated that the polyisobutylene (PIB) initiation stage involves a clear two-step mechanism. Calculation of the free energy landscapes of the other two ether reactions reveals that the energy barriers of diisopropyl ether (i-Pr2O) and 2-chloroethyl ethyl ether (CEEE) are much higher than those of CEE, which is consistent with the experimental results. During the chain propagation phase, the required free energy barrier gradually decreases and tends to reach equilibrium as the chain length increases. Finally, the oxonium mechanism during the chain initiation stage was investigated by calculating the 1H NMR spectra and MTD simulation. Our calculations can confirm that the existence of tert-butyloxonium ions during the reaction is possible. Their contribution to the whole reaction is further discussed.

Recent advances in synthesizing and utilizing nitrogen-containing heterocycles

The use of organocatalysts and a pot economy has strengthened recent organic syntheses. Synthetic methodologies may be applicable in laboratory preparation or in the industrial production of valuable organic compounds. In most cases, synthetic challenges are overcome by highly efficient and environmentally benign organocatalysts in a pot-economical manner. This is exemplified by the recent synthesis of tetrahydropyridine-containing (-)-quinine.

High Hydrostatic Pressure in the Modulation of Enzymatic and Organocatalysis and Life under Pressure: A Review

The interest in high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) is mostly focused on the inactivation of deleterious enzymes, considering the quality-related issues associated with enzymes in foods. However, more recently, HHP has been increasingly studied for several biotechnological applications, including the possibility of carrying out enzyme-catalyzed reactions under high pressure. This review aims to comprehensively present and discuss the effects of HHP on the kinetic catalytic action of enzymes and the equilibrium of the reaction when enzymatic reactions take place under pressure. Each enzyme can respond differently to high pressure, mainly depending on the pressure range and temperature applied. In some cases, the enzymatic reaction remains significantly active at high pressure and temperature, while at ambient pressure it is already inactivated or possesses minor activity. Furthermore, the effect of temperature and pressure on the enzymatic activity indicated a faster decrease in activity when elevated pressure is applied. For most cases, the product concentration at equilibrium under pressure increased; however, in some cases, hydrolysis was preferred over synthesis when pressure increased. The compiled evidence of the effect of high pressure on enzymatic activity indicates that pressure is an effective reaction parameter and that its application for enzyme catalysis is promising.

An Improvement of Mechanical Properties of Two Kinds of Silicone Resins Containing Ladder Segments by Chemical Modification with Trimethylborate

We suggest a new method for postsynthesis modification of silicones containing silanol groups. It was found that trimethylborate is an effective catalyst for dehydrative condensation of silanol groups with the formation of ladder-like blocks. The utility of this approach was demonstrated on postsynthesis modification of poly-(block poly(dimethylsiloxane)-block ladder-like poly(phenylsiloxane)) and poly-(block poly((3,3',3″-trifluoropropyl-methyl)siloxane)-block ladder-like poly(phenylsiloxane) with a combination of linear and ladder-like blocks having silanol groups. The postsynthesis modification leads to a 75% increase in tensile strength and 116% elongation on break in comparison with the starting polymer.

A Brief Review: Advancement in the Synthesis of Amine through the Leuckart Reaction

This review presents a summary of reactions that take place during the “Leuckart-type reaction”. The significance of, as well as recent advancements in, the synthesis of amines through simple and inexpensive methods using readily available raw materials is discussed. This review includes all catalytic and noncatalytic reactions that involve the Leuckart method. Recent studies have shown that at least a quarter of C–N bond-forming reactions in the pharmaceutical industry are occur with the support of reductive amination. Recently, experimental conditions have achieved excellent yields. The “Leuckart-type reaction” is technically associated with Eschweiler–Clarke methylation. Compounds are grouped in accordance with the precept of action. This includes drugs affecting the central nervous system, cardiovascular system and gastrointestinal tract; anticancer drugs, antibiotics, antiviral and antifungal drugs; drugs affecting anxiety; convulsant, biotic, and HIV drugs; and antidiabetic drugs. Therefore, this review supports the development of the Leuckart-type preparation of nitrogenous compounds, as well as their advancement in other areas of human development.

Fundamentals of chirality, resolution, and enantiopure molecule synthesis methods

The chirality of molecules is a concept that explains the interactions in nature. We may observe the same formula but different organizations revolving around the chiral center. Since Pasteur's meticulous observation of sodium ammonium tartrate crystals' structure, scientists have discovered many features of chiral molecules. The number of newly approved single enantiomeric drugs increases every year and takes place in the market. Thus, separation or resolution methods of racemic mixtures are of continued importance in the efficacy of drugs, installation of affordable production processes, and convenient synthetic chemistry practice. This article presents the asymmetric synthesis approaches and the classification of direct resolution methods of chiral molecules.

Metal-Metal Bond Umpolung in Heterometallic Extended Metal Atom Chains

Understanding the fundamental properties governing metal–metal interactions is crucial to understanding the electronic structure and thereby applications of multimetallic systems in catalysis, material science, and magnetism. One such property that is relatively underexplored within multimetallic systems is metal–metal bond polarity, parameterized by the electronegativities (χ) of the metal atoms involved in the bond. In heterobimetallic systems, metal–metal bond polarity is a function of the donor–acceptor (Δχ) interactions of the two bonded metal atoms, with electropositive early transition metals acting as electron acceptors and electronegative late transition metals acting as electron donors. We show in this work, through the preparation and systematic study of a series of Mo₂M(dpa)₄(OTf)₂ (M = Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni; dpa = 2,2′-dipyridylamide; OTf = trifluoromethanesulfonate) heterometallic extended metal atom chain (HEMAC) complexes that this expected trend in χ can be reversed. Physical characterization via single-crystal X-ray diffraction, magnetometry, and spectroscopic methods as well as electronic structure calculations supports the presence of a σ symmetry 3c/3e^– bond that is delocalized across the entire metal-atom chain and forms the basis of the heterometallic Mo₂–M interaction. The delocalized 3c/3e^– interaction is discussed within the context of the analogous 3c/3e^– π bonding in the vinoxy radical, CH₂CHO. The vinoxy comparison establishes three predictions for the σ symmetry 3c/3e^– bond in HEMACS: (1) an umpolung effect that causes the Mo–M interactions to become more covalent as Δχ increases, (2) distortion of the σ bonding and non-bonding orbitals to emphasize Mo–M bonding and de-emphasize Mo–Mo bonding, and (3) an increase in Mo spin population with increasing Mo–M covalency. In agreement with these predictions, we find that the Mo₂···M covalency increases with increasing Δχ of the Mo and M atoms (Δχ_Mo–M increases as M = Cr < Mn < Fe < Co < Ni), an umpolung of the trend predicted in the absence of σ delocalization. We attribute the observed trend in covalency to the decreased energic differential (ΔE) between the heterometal orbital and the σ bonding molecular orbital of the Mo₂ quadruple bond, which serves as an energetically stable, “ligand”-like electron-pair donor to the heterometal ion acceptor. As M is changed from Cr to Ni, the σ bonding and nonbonding orbitals do indeed distort as anticipated, and the spin population of the outer Mo group is increased by at least a factor of 2. These findings provide a predictive framework for multimetallic compounds and advance the current understanding of the electronic structures of molecular heteromultimetallic systems, which can be extrapolated to applications in the context of mixed-metal surface catalysis and multimetallic proteins.

This work describes how use of a metal−metal quadruply bonded metalloligand can reverse expected trends in metal−metal bond polarity through the preparation and systematic study of a novel series of Mo₂M(dpa)₄(OTf)₂ (M = Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, and Ni) heterotrimetallic extended metal atom chain (HEMAC) complexes. These complexes feature a 3c/3e⁻ metal−metal bond that is delocalized across the entire metal atom chain and is compared to the 3c/3e⁻ π bonding in the vinoxyl radical.

Organo-catalysis as emerging tools in organic synthesis: aldol and Michael reactions

Organocatalysis has occupied sustainable position in organic synthesis as a powerful tool for the synthesis of enantiomeric-rich compounds with multiple stereogenic centers. Among the various organic molecules for organocatalysis, the formation of carbon–carbon is viewed as a challenging issue in organic synthesis. The asymmetric aldol and Michael addition reactions are the most significant methods for C–C bond forming reactions. These protocols deliver a valuable path to access chiral molecules, which are useful synthetic hybrids in biologically potent candidates and desirable versatile pharmaceutical intermediates. This work highlighted the impact of organocatalytic aldol and Michael addition reactions in abundant solvent media. It focused on the crucial methods to construct valuable molecules with high enantio- and diastereo-selectivity.

α,β-Unsaturated acyl ammonium species as reactive intermediates in organocatalysis: an update

α,β-Unsaturated acyl ammonium species are versatile intermediates that have been applied in a variety of transformations including Michael additions, domino reactions and cycloadditions. Many of these transformations are promoted by chiral Lewis base catalysts, enabling the rapid generation of molecular complexity with high stereochemical control. This review highlights recent developments in the generation and application of α,β-unsaturated acyl ammonium intermediates reported since a previous review of this area in 2016. Particular emphasis will be placed on reports providing mechanistic insight into catalytic transformations and observed selectivities. A perspective on current challenges and potential future developments in the field of α,β-unsaturated acyl ammonium catalysis is also provided.

Synthesis of tertiary amines by direct Brønsted acid catalyzed reductive amination

Tertiary amines are ubiquitous and valuable compounds in synthetic chemistry, with a wide range of applications in organocatalysis, organometallic complexes, biological processes and pharmaceutical chemistry. One of the most frequently used pathways to synthesize tertiary amines is the reductive amination reaction of carbonyl compounds. Despite developments of numerous new reductive amination methods in the past few decades, this reaction generally requires non-atom-economic processes with harsh conditions and toxic transition-metal catalysts. Herein, we report simple yet practical protocols using triflic acid as a catalyst to efficiently promote the direct reductive amination reactions of carbonyl compounds on a broad range of substrates. Applications of this new method to generate valuable heterocyclic frameworks and polyamines are also included.

Recent advances in continuous-flow organocatalysis for process intensification

The progresses on continuous-flow organocatalysis from 2016 to early 2020 are reviewed with focus on transition from batch to flow.

A multifunctional triazine-based nanoporous polymer as a versatile organocatalyst for CO2utilization and C–C bond formation

Conversion of CO₂to cyclic carbonates, methanol and methane by using a nanoporous MNENP as a multifunctional metal-free organocatalyst.

Unraveling the Origin of Solvent Induced Enantioselectivity in the Henry Reaction with Cinchona Thiourea as Catalyst

In this work, we report an energy decomposition and electronic structure analysis using DFT calculations for the C-C coupling step in the Henry reaction with cinchona thiourea as catalyst and DMF solvent to unravel the origin of enantioselectivity. We found that the conformation of flexible thiourea moiety is affected by the solvent, and in the preferred conformation of thiourea in strong Lewis basic DMF solvent, the N-H sites are in the opposite direction, i.e., in trans conformation. Hence, the thiourea moiety acts via single hydrogen bonding with substrates. The conformation of the substrates with respect to the forming C-C bond plays critical role to increase orbital interaction between two substrates and enhances hydrogen bond strength between substrates and catalyst, which in turn stabilizes the positive charge developing on the catalyst at the transition state for one of the enantiomers ( S). Thus, the enantioselectivity has electronic structure origin. The stronger H-bond formation in the S enantiomer has been confirmed by the calculated IR spectra and is in agreement with thus far experimental and computational results.

Efficient esterification of n-butanol with acetic acid catalyzed by the Brönsted acidic ionic liquids: influence of acidity

BAILs having different structures and their related acidities have been investigated for their role in the esterification of n-butanol with acetic acid, and it was found that IL-5 containing double –SO₃H groups exhibits excellent catalytic activity.