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Bhattacharya R. A review on production and application of activated carbon from discarded plastics in the context of 'waste treats waste'. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 325:116613. [PMID: 36327607 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 10/18/2022] [Accepted: 10/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
In the post-COVID scenario, the annual increase in plastic waste has taken an upsurge due to the disposal of plastic masks, gloves and other protective equipment. To reduce the plastic load ending up in landfills and oceans or dumped at roadsides, the potential of using plastic polymers in different sectors has been investigated over the years leading to their potential application in pavement laying, concrete industry, fuel generation and production of carbon-based compounds among which activated carbons (AC) is a prime example. As one of the most recommended adsorbents for removing contaminants from water and adsorbing greenhouse gases, AC creates a potential sector for using discarded plastic to further treat pollutants and approach closer to a circular economy for plastics. This paper analyses the production process, the effect of production parameters on AC characteristics and properties that aid in adsorption. The interdependence of these factors determines the surface area, porosity, relative micropore and mesopore volume, thereby defining the utility for removing contaminant molecules of a particular size. Furthermore, this work discusses the application of AC along with a summary of the earlier works leading to the existing gaps in the research area. Production costs, formation of by-products including toxic substances and adsorbate selectivity are the major issues that have restricted the commercial application of this process towards its practical use. Research aimed at valorization of plastic waste into ACs would minimize the solid waste burden, along with treating other pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roumi Bhattacharya
- Research Scholar, Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Engineering, Science and Technology, Shibpur, India.
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Ahangar FA, Rashid U, Ahmad J, Tsubota T, Alsalme A. Conversion of Waste Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Polymer into Activated Carbon and Its Feasibility to Produce Green Fuel. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13223952. [PMID: 34833251 PMCID: PMC8625594 DOI: 10.3390/polym13223952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, a novel idea was proposed to convert the polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste drinking-water bottles into activated carbon (AC) to use for waste cooking oil (WCO) and palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) feasibility to convert into esters. The acidic and basic char were prepared by using the waste PET bottles. The physiochemical properties were determined by employing various analytical techniques, such as field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) and temperature-programmed desorption – ammonia/carbon dioxide (TPD-NH3/CO2). The prepared PET H3PO4 and PET KOH showed the higher surface area, thus illustrating that the surface of both materials has enough space for impregnation of foreign precursors. The TPD-NH3 and TPD-CO2 results depicted that PET H3PO4 is found to have higher acidity, i.e., 18.17 mmolg−1, due to the attachment of phosponyl groups to it during pretreatment, whereas, in the case of PET KOH, the basicity increases to 13.49 mmolg−1. The conversion results show that prepared materials can be used as a support for an acidic and basic catalyst for the conversion of WCO and PFAD into green fuel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Firdous Ahmad Ahangar
- Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (ION2), University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia;
| | - Umer Rashid
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University Bozen-Bolzano, Piazza Universita 5, 39100 Bolzano, Italy;
- Correspondence: or ; Tel.: +60-3-97697393
| | - Junaid Ahmad
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University Bozen-Bolzano, Piazza Universita 5, 39100 Bolzano, Italy;
| | - Toshiki Tsubota
- Department of Materials Science, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, 1-1 Sensuicho, Tobata-ku, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka 804-8550, Japan;
| | - Ali Alsalme
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 1145, Saudi Arabia;
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Wong WY, Lim S, Pang YL, Shuit SH, Chen WH, Lee KT. Synthesis of renewable heterogeneous acid catalyst from oil palm empty fruit bunch for glycerol-free biodiesel production. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 727:138534. [PMID: 32334218 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Interest in biodiesel research has escalated over the years due to dwindling fossil fuel reserves. The implementation of a carbon-based solid acid catalyst in biodiesel production eradicates the separation problems associated with homogeneous catalysis. However, its application in the glycerol-free interesterification process for biodiesel production is still rarely being studied in the literature. In this study, novel environmentally benign catalysts were prepared from oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) derived activated carbon (AC) which is sustainable and low cost via direct sulfonation using concentrated sulfuric acid. The effects of synthesizing variables such as carbonization and sulfonation temperatures with different holding times towards the fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield in interesterification reaction with oleic acid and methyl acetate were investigated in detail. It was found that the optimum carbonization temperature and duration together with sulfonation temperature and duration were 600 °C, 3 h, 100 °C and 6 h, respectively. The catalyst possessed an amorphous structure with a high total acid density of 9.0 mmol NaOH g-1 due to the well-developed porous framework structure of the carbon support. Under these optimum conditions, the OPEFB derived solid acid catalyst recorded an excellent catalytic activity of 50.5% methyl oleate yield at 100 °C after 8 h with 50:1 methyl acetate to oleic acid molar ratio and 10 wt% catalyst dosage. The heterogeneous acid catalyst derived from OPEFB had shown promising properties that made them highly suitable for cost-effective and environmental-friendly glycerol-free biodiesel production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Ying Wong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Steven Lim
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia; Centre for Photonics and Advanced Materials Research, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Yean-Ling Pang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia; Centre for Photonics and Advanced Materials Research, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Siew-Hoong Shuit
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia; Centre for Photonics and Advanced Materials Research, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wei-Hsin Chen
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan; Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, Tunghai University, Taichung 407, Taiwan; Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Chin-Yi University of Technology, Taichung 411, Taiwan
| | - Keat-Teong Lee
- School of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Seri Ampangan, Nibong Tebal 14300, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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Akinfalabi SI, Rashid U, Arbi Nehdi I, Yaw Choong TS, Sbihi HM, Gewik MM. Optimization and blends study of heterogeneous acid catalyst-assisted esterification of palm oil industry by-product for biodiesel production. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:191592. [PMID: 32218977 PMCID: PMC7029908 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.191592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The optimum conditions to produce palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD)-derived-methyl esters via esterification have been demonstrated with the aid of the response surface methodology (RSM) with central composite rotatable design in the presence of heterogeneous acid catalyst. The effect of four reaction variables, reaction time (30-110 min), reaction temperature (30-70°C), catalyst concentration (1-3 wt.%) and methanol : PFAD molar ratio (3 : 1-11 : 1), were investigated. The reaction time had the most influence on the yield response, while the interaction between the reaction time and the catalyst concentration, with an F-value of 95.61, contributed the most to the esterification reaction. The model had an R 2-value of 0.9855, suggesting a fit model, which gave a maximum yield of 95%. The fuel properties of produced PFAD methyl ester were appraised based on the acid value, iodine value, cloud and pour points, flash point, kinematic viscosity, density, ash and water contents and were compared with biodiesel EN 14214 and ASTM D-6751 standard limits. The PFAD methyl ester was further blended with petro-diesel from B0, B3, B5, B10, B20 and B100, on a volumetric basis. The blends were characterized by TGA, DTG and FTIR. With an acid value of 0.42 (mg KOH g-1), iodine value of 63 (g.I2/100 g), kinematic viscosity of 4.31 (mm2 s-1), the PFAD methyl ester has shown good fuel potential, as all of its fuel properties were within the permissible international standards for biodiesel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shehu-Ibrahim Akinfalabi
- Institute of Advanced Technology, Engineering Faculty, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Umer Rashid
- Institute of Advanced Technology, Engineering Faculty, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Imededdine Arbi Nehdi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
- Chemistry Department, El Manar Preparatory Institute for Engineering Studies, Tunis El Manar University, P.O. Box 244, Tunis 2092, Tunisia
| | - Thomas Shean Yaw Choong
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Engineering Faculty, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hassen Mohamed Sbihi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Mossad Gewik
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
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Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate for Biodiesel Production Catalyzed by Synthesized Kenaf Seed Cake-Based Sulfonated Catalyst. Catalysts 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/catal9050482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Sulfonated kenaf seed cake (SO3H-KSC) catalyst, was synthesized to aid biodiesel production from palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). It was chemically activated with phosphoric acid for an impregnation period of 24 h in order to enhance the porosity and the specific surface area of kenaf seed cake (KSC). After the carbonization and sulfonation, the resultant catalyst was characterized with powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), NH3-temperature programmed desorption (NH3-TPD) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The SO3H-KSC catalyst was amorphous in nature and had an acid density of 14.32 mmol/g, specific surface area of 365.63 m2/g, pore volume of 0.31 cm3/g and pore diameter of 2.89 nm. At optimum esterification conditions--reaction time 90 mins, temperature of 338 K, methanol:PFAD molar ratio of 10:1 and catalyst concentration of 2 wt.%—a free fatty acid (FFA) conversion of 98.7% and fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) yield of 97.9% was achieved. The synthesized SO3H-KSC catalyst underwent five reaction cycles while maintaining a fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) yield and free fatty acid (FFA) conversion of >90%. Thus, the SO3H-KSC catalyst was shown to be an excellent application of bio-based material as a precursor for catalyst synthesis for esterification of PFAD.
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