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Xia C, Shen X. Analysis of factors influencing on Electro-Fenton and research on combination technology (II): a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024:10.1007/s11356-024-34159-z. [PMID: 38995339 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-34159-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
The principle of Fenton reagent is to produce ·OH by mixing H2O2 and Fe2+ to realize the oxidation of organic pollutants, although Fenton reagent has the advantages of non-toxicity and short reaction time, but there are its related defects. The Fenton-like technology has been widely studied because of its various forms and better results than the traditional Fenton technology in terms of pollutant degradation efficiency. This paper reviews the electro-Fenton technology among the Fenton-like technologies and provides an overview of the homogeneous electro-Fenton. It also focuses on summarizing the effects of factors such as H2O2, reactant concentration, reactor volume and electrode quality, reaction time and voltage (potential) on the efficiency of electro-Fenton process. It is shown that appropriate enhancement of H2O2 concentration, voltage (potential) and reaction volume can help to improve the process efficiency; the process efficiency also can be improved by increasing the reaction time and electrode quality. Feeding modes of H2O2 have different effects on process efficiency. Finally, a considerable number of experimental studies have shown that the combination of electro-Fenton with ultrasound, anodic oxidation and electrocoagulation technologies is superior to the single electro-Fenton process in terms of pollutant degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongjie Xia
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, 110870, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinjun Shen
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shenyang University of Technology, 110870, Shenyang, People's Republic of China.
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Kim J, Choi J, Hong Y, Han Y, Huynh T, Tran KM, Kwak HJ, Seo S, Heo C, Lee H. Indoor-Light-Activated Blue TiO 2-Molecule-WO 3 Visible Photocatalyst for Antibacterial Performance against Escherichia coli. ACS Infect Dis 2024; 10:1890-1895. [PMID: 38738652 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.4c00126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
Currently used visible light catalysts either operate with high-power light sources or require prolonged periods of time for catalytic reactions. This presents a limitation regarding facile application in indoor environments and spaces frequented by the public. Furthermore, this gives rise to elevated power consumption. Here, we enhance photocatalytic performance with blue TiO2 and WO3 complexes covalently coupled through an organic molecule, 3-mercaptopropionic acid, under indoor light. Antibacterial experiments against 108 CFU/mL Escherichia coli (E. coli) suspensions were conducted under indoor light exposure conditions. They showed a sterilization effect of almost 90% within 70 min and nearly 100% after 110 min. The complex generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as •OH and O2•-, under natural air conditions. We also showed that h+ and •OH are important for sterilizing E. coli using common scavengers. This research highlights the potential of these complexes to generate ROS, effectively playing a crucial role in antibacterial effects under indoor light.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joosung Kim
- Department of Energy Science, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Centre for Integrated Nanostructure Physics (CINAP), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Jungsue Choi
- Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Yeseul Hong
- Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Centre for Integrated Nanostructure Physics (CINAP), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Yeonsu Han
- Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Thuy Huynh
- Department of Biophysics, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Institute of Quantum Biophysics (IQB), Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Kim My Tran
- Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Centre for Integrated Nanostructure Physics (CINAP), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Hee-Jin Kwak
- Centre for Integrated Nanostructure Physics (CINAP), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Institute of Basic Science (IBS), Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Sohyeon Seo
- Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Creative Research Institute (CRI), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Chaejeong Heo
- Department of Biophysics, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Centre for Integrated Nanostructure Physics (CINAP), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Institute of Basic Science (IBS), Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Institute of Quantum Biophysics (IQB), Suwon 16419, South Korea
| | - Hyoyoung Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Centre for Integrated Nanostructure Physics (CINAP), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Institute of Basic Science (IBS), Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Institute of Quantum Biophysics (IQB), Suwon 16419, South Korea
- Creative Research Institute (CRI), Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, South Korea
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Jia Y, Li H, Zhao H, Zhang G, Zhang Z, Zhang X, Zhou W. A new strategy for improving the energy efficiency of electro-Fenton: Using N-doped activated carbon cathode with strong Fe(III) adsorption capacity to promote Fe(II) regeneration. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 357:120823. [PMID: 38583380 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
Fe(II) regeneration plays a crucial role in the electro-Fenton process, significantly influencing the rate of ·OH formation. In this study, a method is proposed to improve Fe(II) regeneration through N-doping aimed at enhancing the adsorption capacity of the activated carbon cathode for Fe(III). N-doping not only enriched the pore structure on the surface of activated carbon, providing numerous adsorption sites, but also significantly increased the adsorption energy for Fe(III). Among the types of nitrogen introduced, pyridine-N exhibited the most substantial enhancement effect, followed by pyrrole-N, while graphite-N showed a certain degree of inhibition. Furthermore, N-doping facilitated the adsorption of all forms of Fe(III) by activated carbon. The adsorption and electrosorption rates of the NAC-900 electrode for Fe(III) were 30.33% and 42.36%, respectively. Such modification markedly enhanced the Fe3+/Fe2+ cycle within the electro-Fenton system. The NAC-900 system demonstrated an impressive phenol degradation efficiency of 93.67%, alongside the lowest electricity consumption attributed to the effective "adsorption-reduction" synergy for Fe(III) on the NAC-900 electrode. Compared to the AC cathode electro-Fenton system, the degradation efficiency of the NAC-900 cathode electro-Fenton system at pH = levels ranging from 3 to 5 exceeded 90%; thus, extending the pH applicability of the electro-Fenton process. The degradation efficiency of phenol using the NAC-900 cathode electro-Fenton system in various water matrices approached 90%, indicating robust performance in real wastewater treatment scenarios. This research elucidates the impact of cathodic Fe(III) adsorption on Fe(II) regeneration within the electro-Fenton system, and clarifies the influence of different N- doping types on the cathodic adsorption of Fe(III).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongying Jia
- School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, 163318, China
| | - Hongguang Li
- School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, 163318, China
| | - Haiqian Zhao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215009, China.
| | - Guole Zhang
- School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, 163318, China
| | - Zhuangzhuang Zhang
- School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, 163318, China
| | - Xiaolong Zhang
- School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Northeast Petroleum University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, 163318, China
| | - Wei Zhou
- School of Energy Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150001, China
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Taqieddin A, Sarrouf S, Ehsan MF, Alshawabkeh AN. New Insights on Designing the Next-Generation Materials for Electrochemical Synthesis of Reactive Oxidative Species Towards Efficient and Scalable Water Treatment: A Review and Perspectives. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2023; 11:111384. [PMID: 38186676 PMCID: PMC10769459 DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2023.111384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Electrochemical water remediation technologies offer several advantages and flexibility for water treatment and degradation of contaminants. These technologies generate reactive oxidative species (ROS) that degrade pollutants. For the implementation of these technologies at an industrial scale, efficient, scalable, and cost-effective in-situ ROS synthesis is necessary to degrade complex pollutant mixtures, treat large amount of contaminated water, and clean water in a reasonable amount of time and cost. These targets are directly dependent on the materials used to generate the ROS, such as electrodes and catalysts. Here, we review the key design aspects of electrocatalytic materials for efficient in-situ ROS generation. We present a mechanistic understanding of ROS generation, including their reaction pathways, and integrate this with the key design considerations of the materials and the overall electrochemical reactor/cell. This involves tunning the interfacial interactions between the electrolyte and electrode which can enhance the ROS generation rate up to ~ 40% as discussed in this review. We also summarized the current and emerging materials for water remediation cells and created a structured dataset of about 500 electrodes and 130 catalysts used for ROS generation and water treatment. A perspective on accelerating the discovery and designing of the next generation electrocatalytic materials is discussed through the application of integrated experimental and computational workflows. Overall, this article provides a comprehensive review and perspectives on designing and discovering materials for ROS synthesis, which are critical not only for successful implementation of electrochemical water remediation technologies but also for other electrochemical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Taqieddin
- Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Stephanie Sarrouf
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Muhammad Fahad Ehsan
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Akram N. Alshawabkeh
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115
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Wei S, Chen T, Hou H, Xu Y. Recent Advances in Electrochemical Sterilization. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2023.117419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/05/2023]
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Lu S, Zhang G. Recent advances on inactivation of waterborne pathogenic microorganisms by (photo) electrochemical oxidation processes: Design and application strategies. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 431:128619. [PMID: 35359104 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Compared with other conventional water disinfection processes, (photo) electrochemical oxidation (P/ECO) processes have the characteristics of environmental friendliness, convenient installation and operation, easy control and high efficiency of inactivating waterborne pathogenic microorganisms (PMs), so that more and more research work has been focused on this topic, but there is still a huge gap between the research and practical application. Here, the research network of inactivating PMs by P/ECO processes has been comprehensively summarized, and the electrode/reactor/process design strategies based on strengthening direct and indirect oxidation, enhancing mass transfer efficiency and electron transfer efficiency, and improving the effective dose of electrogenerated oxidants are discussed. Furthermore, the factors affecting the inactivation of PMs and the issues regarding to stability and lifetime of the electrode are discussed respectively. Finally, the important research priorities and possible research challenges of P/ECO processes are put forward to make significant progress of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sen Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, PR China
| | - Guan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518055, PR China; School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen 518055, PR China.
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Herraiz-Carboné M, Cotillas S, Lacasa E, Sainz de Baranda C, Riquelme E, Cañizares P, Rodrigo MA, Sáez C. A review on disinfection technologies for controlling the antibiotic resistance spread. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 797:149150. [PMID: 34303979 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in water bodies poses a sanitary and environmental risk. These ARB and other mobile genetic elements can be easily spread from hospital facilities, the point in which, for sure, they are more concentrated. For this reason, novel clean and efficient technologies are being developed for allowing to remove these ARB and other mobile genetic elements before their uncontrolled spread. In this paper, a review on the recent knowledge about the state of the art of the main disinfection technologies to control the antibiotic resistance spread from natural water, wastewater, and hospital wastewater (including urine matrices) is reported. These technologies involve not only conventional processes, but also the recent advances on advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), including electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs). This review summarizes the state of the art on the applicability of these technologies and also focuses on the description of the disinfection mechanisms by each technology, highlighting the promising impact of EAOPs on the remediation of this important environmental and health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Herraiz-Carboné
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Higher Technical School of Industrial Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Edificio Infante Don Juan Manuel, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
| | - Salvador Cotillas
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Higher Technical School of Industrial Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Edificio Infante Don Juan Manuel, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - Engracia Lacasa
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Higher Technical School of Industrial Engineering, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Edificio Infante Don Juan Manuel, Campus Universitario s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain.
| | - Caridad Sainz de Baranda
- Clinical Parasitology and Microbiology Area, University Hospital Complex of Albacete, C/Hermanos Falcó 37, 02006 Albacete, Spain
| | - Eva Riquelme
- Clinical Parasitology and Microbiology Area, University Hospital Complex of Albacete, C/Hermanos Falcó 37, 02006 Albacete, Spain
| | - Pablo Cañizares
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Sciences and Technologies, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Edificio Enrique Costa Novella, Campus Universitario s/n, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Manuel A Rodrigo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Sciences and Technologies, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Edificio Enrique Costa Novella, Campus Universitario s/n, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Cristina Sáez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Sciences and Technologies, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Edificio Enrique Costa Novella, Campus Universitario s/n, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain
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Bury NA, Mumford KA, Stevens GW. The electro-Fenton regeneration of Granular Activated Carbons: Degradation of organic contaminants and the relationship to the carbon surface. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 416:125792. [PMID: 33878650 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Revised: 03/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical regeneration of Granular Activated Carbon is an emerging treatment option to restore adsorption capacity in systems designed to remove organic contaminants from aqueous solutions. The electro-Fenton process is one such electrochemical process and it is reviewed along with other members of its family including Photoelectro-Fenton and Heterogeneous electro-Fenton and electro-Fenton like reactions, for its ability to regenerate Granular Activated Carbons contaminated with organics. The behaviour of critical operating parameter such as pH, current, catalyst concentration and initial contaminant concentration are reviewed to find optimal operating conditions. The relationship between electro-Fenton regeneration and the chemical and physical surface of the carbon is also explored. Understanding regeneration mechanisms and the optimal operating conditions enables these technologies to be used commercially and to be scaled-up and treat contaminated waters more efficiently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi A Bury
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Kathryn A Mumford
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia.
| | - Geoffrey W Stevens
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia
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Min SJ, Kim JG, Baek K. Role of carbon fiber electrodes and carbonate electrolytes in electrochemical phenol oxidation. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 400:123083. [PMID: 32947731 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 05/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In-situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) requires an injection of oxidants into a contaminated site. However, the oxidants decompose and react with contaminants during transport to the contaminated region, which causes oxidant over-consumption. In-situ oxidant generation can solve this problem, and electrochemical methods can be applied to achieve this. Electrochemical oxidation is highly dependent on electrode material type. In this study, we evaluated graphite and carbon fiber as candidates for electrochemical oxidant generation and phenol as the model compound. The carbon fiber anode oxidized the phenol more effectively than graphite, with removal proportional to the applied current. Carbonate electrolytes were more effective at oxidizing phenols than sulfate electrolytes. The faster carbon fiber anode phenol oxidation is due to its large surface area. Carbonate radicals in the carbonate electrolyte contribute to phenol oxidation as well as further intermediate oxidation. The carbon fiber cathode was not an effective phenol oxidizer even though it generated more hydrogen peroxide. This is because there was no catalyst to transform the hydrogen peroxide into hydroxyl radicals. Results indicate that electrochemical oxidation using carbon fiber is an effective method for treating phenol found in groundwater with high concentrations of (bi)carbonate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Jin Min
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Soil Environment Research Center, Jeonbuk National University, 567 Baekie-daero, Deokjin, Jeonju, Jeollabukdo 561-756, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Gook Kim
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Soil Environment Research Center, Jeonbuk National University, 567 Baekie-daero, Deokjin, Jeonju, Jeollabukdo 561-756, Republic of Korea
| | - Kitae Baek
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Soil Environment Research Center, Jeonbuk National University, 567 Baekie-daero, Deokjin, Jeonju, Jeollabukdo 561-756, Republic of Korea.
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Gu Y, Xiao F, Luo L, Zhou X, Zhou X, Li J, Li Z. Bacterial Disinfection by CuFe 2O 4 Nanoparticles Enhanced by NH 2OH: A Mechanistic Study. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 10:E18. [PMID: 31861627 PMCID: PMC7022556 DOI: 10.3390/nano10010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 12/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Many disinfection technologies have emerged recently in water treatment industry, which are designed to inactivate water pathogens with extraordinary efficiency and minimum side effects and costs. Current disinfection processes, including chlorination, ozonation, UV irradiation, and so on, have their inherent drawbacks, and have been proven ineffective under certain scenarios. Bacterial inactivation by noble metals has been traditionally used, and copper is an ideal candidate as a bactericidal agent owing to its high abundance and low cost. Building on previous findings, we explored the bactericidal efficiency of Cu(I) and attempted to develop it into a novel water disinfection platform. Nanosized copper ferrite was synthesized, and it was reduced by hydroxylamine to form surface bound Cu(I) species. Our results showed that the generated Cu(I) on copper ferrite surface could inactivate E. coli at a much higher efficiency than Cu(II) species. Elevated reactive oxygen species' content inside the cell primarily accounted for the strong bactericidal role of Cu(I), which may eventually lead to enhanced oxidative stress towards cell membrane, DNA, and functional proteins. The developed platform in this study is promising to be integrated into current water treatment industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Gu
- School of Mechanical and Eletrical Engineering, Zhoukou Normal University, Zhoukou 466000, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (X.Z.); (J.L.)
| | - Furen Xiao
- College of Materials Science and Engineering and State Key Laboratory of Metastable Materials Science and Technology, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao 066004, China;
| | - Liumin Luo
- School of Mechanical and Eletrical Engineering, Zhoukou Normal University, Zhoukou 466000, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (X.Z.); (J.L.)
| | - Xiaoyu Zhou
- School of Mechanical and Eletrical Engineering, Zhoukou Normal University, Zhoukou 466000, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (X.Z.); (J.L.)
| | - Xiaodong Zhou
- School of Mechanical and Eletrical Engineering, Zhoukou Normal University, Zhoukou 466000, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (X.Z.); (J.L.)
| | - Jin Li
- School of Mechanical and Eletrical Engineering, Zhoukou Normal University, Zhoukou 466000, China; (L.L.); (X.Z.); (X.Z.); (J.L.)
| | - Zhi Li
- California State University San Bernardino, 5500 University Pkwy, San Bernardino, CA 92407, USA;
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