The Potential of Different Origin Stem Cells in Modulating Oral Bone Regeneration Processes

Advancing bone regeneration: Unveiling the potential of 3D cell models in the evaluation of bone regenerative materials

Bone, a rigid yet regenerative tissue, has garnered extensive attention for its impressive healing abilities. Despite advancements in understanding bone repair and creating treatments for bone injuries, handling nonunions and large defects remains a major challenge in orthopedics. The rise of bone regenerative materials is transforming the approach to bone repair, offering innovative solutions for nonunions and significant defects, and thus reshaping orthopedic care. Evaluating these materials effectively is key to advancing bone tissue regeneration, especially in difficult healing scenarios, making it a critical research area. Traditional evaluation methods, including two-dimensional cell models and animal models, have limitations in predicting accurately. This has led to exploring alternative methods, like 3D cell models, which provide fresh perspectives for assessing bone materials' regenerative potential. This paper discusses various techniques for constructing 3D cell models, their pros and cons, and crucial factors to consider when using these models to evaluate bone regenerative materials. We also highlight the significance of 3D cell models in the in vitro assessments of these materials, discuss their current drawbacks and limitations, and suggest future research directions. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This work addresses the challenge of evaluating bone regenerative materials (BRMs) crucial for bone tissue engineering. It explores the emerging role of 3D cell models as superior alternatives to traditional methods for assessing these materials. By dissecting the construction, key factors of evaluating, advantages, limitations, and practical considerations of 3D cell models, the paper elucidates their significance in overcoming current evaluation method shortcomings. It highlights how these models offer a more physiologically relevant and ethically preferable platform for the precise assessment of BRMs. This contribution is particularly significant for "Acta Biomaterialia" readership, as it not only synthesizes current knowledge but also propels the discourse forward in the search for advanced solutions in bone tissue engineering and regeneration.

Insights into the role of mesenchymal stem cells in cutaneous medical aesthetics: from basics to clinics

With the development of the economy and the increasing prevalence of skin problems, cutaneous medical aesthetics are gaining more and more attention. Skin disorders like poor wound healing, aging, and pigmentation have an impact not only on appearance but also on patients with physical and psychological issues, and even impose a significant financial burden on families and society. However, due to the complexities of its occurrence, present treatment options cannot produce optimal outcomes, indicating a dire need for new and effective treatments. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and their secretomics treatment is a new regenerative medicine therapy that promotes and regulates endogenous stem cell populations and/or replenishes cell pools to achieve tissue homeostasis and regeneration. It has demonstrated remarkable advantages in several skin-related in vivo and in vitro investigations, aiding in the improvement of skin conditions and the promotion of skin aesthetics. As a result, this review gives a complete description of recent scientific breakthroughs in MSCs for skin aesthetics and the limitations of their clinical applications, aiming to provide new ideas for future research and clinical transformation.

Enhancing regenerative potential: A comprehensive review of stem cell transplantation for sports-related neuronal injuries, with a focus on spinal cord injuries and peripheral nervous system damage

Neuronal injuries, as one of the consequences of sports-related incidents, exert a profound influence on the athletes' future, potentially leading to complete immobility and impeding their athletic pursuits. In cases of severe damage inflicted upon the spinal cord (SC) and peripheral nervous systems (PNS), the regenerative process is notably compromised, rendering it essentially inefficient. Among the pivotal therapeutic approaches for the enhancement and prevention of secondary SC injuries (SCI), stem cell transplantation (SCT) stands out prominently. Stem cells, whether directly involved in replacement and reconstruction or indirectly through modification and secretion of crucial bioenvironmental factors, engage in the intricate process of tissue regeneration. Stem cells, through the secretion of neurotrophic factors (NTFs) (aiming to modulate the immune system), reduction of inflammation, axonal growth stimulation, and myelin formation, endeavor to facilitate the regeneration of damaged SC tissue. The fundamental challenges of this approach encompass the proper selection of suitable stem cell candidates for transplantation and the establishment of an appropriate microenvironment conducive to SC repair. In this article, an attempt has been made to explore sports-related injuries, particularly SCI, to comprehensively review innovative methods for treating SCI, and to address the existing challenges. Additionally, some of the stem cells used in neural injuries and the process of their utilization have been discussed.

microRNAs delivered by small extracellular vesicles in MSCs as an emerging tool for bone regeneration

Bone regeneration is a dynamic process that involves angiogenesis and the balance of osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis. In bone tissue engineering, the transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is a promising approach to restore bone homeostasis. MSCs, particularly their small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), exert therapeutic effects due to their paracrine capability. Increasing evidence indicates that microRNAs (miRNAs) delivered by sEVs from MSCs (MSCs-sEVs) can alter gene expression in recipient cells and enhance bone regeneration. As an ideal delivery vehicle of miRNAs, MSCs-sEVs combine the high bioavailability and stability of sEVs with osteogenic ability of miRNAs, which can effectively overcome the challenge of low delivery efficiency in miRNA therapy. In this review, we focus on the recent advancements in the use of miRNAs delivered by MSCs-sEVs for bone regeneration and disorders. Additionally, we summarize the changes in miRNA expression in osteogenic-related MSCs-sEVs under different microenvironments.

Microenvironmental Stiffness Directs Chondrogenic Lineages of Stem Cells from the Human Apical Papilla via Cooperation between ROCK and Smad3 Signaling

Cell-based cartilage tissue engineering faces a great challenge in the repair process, partly due to the special physical microenvironment. Human stem cell from apical papilla (hSCAP) shows great potential as seed cells because of its versatile differentiation capacity. However, whether hSCAP has potent chondrogenic differentiation ability in the physical microenvironment of chondroid remains unknown. In this study, we fabricated poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) substrates with different stiffnesses and investigated the chondrogenic differentiation potential of hSCAPs. First, we found that hSCAPs cultured on soft substrates spread more narrowly accompanied by cortical actin organization, a hallmark of differentiated chondrocytes. On the contrary, stiff substrates were favorable for cell spreading and stress fiber formation. More importantly, the increased chondrogenic differentiation of hSCAPs seeded on soft substrates was confirmed by characterizing increased extracellular proteoglycan aggregation through Alcian blue staining and Safranin O staining and enhanced markers toward chondrogenic differentiation including SRY-box transcription factor 9 (Sox9), type II collagen (Col2), and aggrecan in both normal α-minimum essential medium (αMEM) and specific chondrogenic medium (CM) culture conditions. Then, we investigated the mechanosensing/mechanotransduction governing the chondrogenic differentiation of hSCAPs in response to different stiffnesses and found that stiffness-sensitive integrin β1 and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) were essential for mechanical signal perception and were oriented at the start of mechanotransduction induced by matrix stiffness. We next showed that the increased nuclear accumulation of Smad3 signaling and target Sox9 facilitated the chondrogenic differentiation of hSCAPs on the soft substrates and further verified the importance of Rho-associated protein kinase (ROCK) signaling in regulating chondrogenic differentiation and its driving factors, Smad3 and Sox9. By using SIS3, the specific inhibitor of p-Smad3, and miRNA targeting Rho-associated protein kinase 1 (ROCK-1), we finally confirmed the importance of ROCK/Smad3/Sox9 axis in the chondrogenic differentiation of hSCAPs in response to substrate stiffness. These results help us to increase the understanding of how microenvironmental stiffness directs chondrogenic differentiation from the aspects of mechanosensing, mechanotransduction, and cell fate decision, which will be of great value in the application of hSCAPs in cartilage tissue engineering.

Oral cavity-derived stem cells and preclinical models of jaw-bone defects for bone tissue engineering

BACKGROUND

Jaw-bone defects caused by various diseases lead to aesthetic and functional complications, which can seriously affect the life quality of patients. Current treatments cannot fully meet the needs of reconstruction of jaw-bone defects. Thus, the research and application of bone tissue engineering are a "hot topic." As seed cells for engineering of jaw-bone tissue, oral cavity-derived stem cells have been explored and used widely. Models of jaw-bone defect are excellent tools for the study of bone defect repair in vivo. Different types of bone defect repair require different stem cells and bone defect models. This review aimed to better understand the research status of oral and maxillofacial bone regeneration.

MAIN TEXT

Data were gathered from PubMed searches and references from relevant studies using the search phrases "bone" AND ("PDLSC" OR "DPSC" OR "SCAP" OR "GMSC" OR "SHED" OR "DFSC" OR "ABMSC" OR "TGPC"); ("jaw" OR "alveolar") AND "bone defect." We screened studies that focus on "bone formation of oral cavity-derived stem cells" and "jaw bone defect models," and reviewed the advantages and disadvantages of oral cavity-derived stem cells and preclinical model of jaw-bone defect models.

CONCLUSION

The type of cell and animal model should be selected according to the specific research purpose and disease type. This review can provide a foundation for the selection of oral cavity-derived stem cells and defect models in tissue engineering of the jaw bone.

Combination of Dental-Capping Agents with Low Level Laser Therapy Promotes Proliferation of Stem Cells from Apical Papilla

Background: Direct pulp capping is a vital pulp therapy, which stimulates differentiation of stem cells from apical papilla (SCAPs). SCAPs have multipotential capacity to differentiate into types of cells, contributing to the regeneration of tissues. Objective: Considering the promising effects of dental-capping materials, we aim to investigate the effect of dental dressing materials combined with laser therapy on the percentage of SCAP viability and the consequent dental regeneration capacity. Methods: We collected two immature third molar teeth and isolated SCAPs through collagenase type I enzymatic activity. Isolated SCAPs were then cultured with Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium and α-minimum essential medium enriched with 15% and 10% fetal bovine serum, respectively. After reaching 70-80% confluency, cells were seeded in a 96-well plate and then treated with mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA), enamel matrix derivative (EMD), biodentine, and low level laser therapy (LLLT) alone and in combination for 24, 48, and 168 h. After that, cell survival rate was assessed using (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) (MTT) assay. Results: We found that combination of MTA, EMD, and LLLT as well as that of biodentine, EMD, and LLLT could lead to significant increase of SCAP viability as compared with other treatment groups. Combination of MTA and biodentine with EMD could also show increased level of SCAP proliferation and viability. However, MTA and biodentine alone reduced SCAP survival rate in all time points. Conclusions: Our conclusion is that LLLT can serve as an enhancer of SCAP proliferation and differentiation rate when added to dental-capping agents such as MTA, EMD, and biodentine. Thus, LLLT combination with effective capping materials will serve as a promising option for dental tissue repair.

Regeneration of periodontal bone defects with mesenchymal stem cells in animal models. Systematic review and meta-analysis

The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in the regeneration of periodontal bone defects in animal models. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted following the PRISMA guidelines, and the study was recorded in PROSPERO under reference number CDR42021247462. The PICO question was: is periodontal regeneration (cementum, periodontal ligament and alveolar bone) with MSCs more effective than other techniques? Three groups were considered: Group 1: MSCs alone or mixed with regenerative materials. Group 2: only regenerative materials. Group 3: no regenerative material nor MSCs. The search was conducted using MeSH with a total of 18 articles for qualitative analysis and 5 for quantitative analysis. For the meta-analysis, a modification of the effect size algorithm was developed, which considered a comparison of means between treatments using the Student's t sample distribution. When comparing the effect size between Group 1 and Group 2, the effect size for the new cementum was 2.83 mm with an estimated confidence interval of 95% (CI 95%) between 0.48 and 5.17 mm. When considering the fit to a random-effects model, the combined variance (τ²) was 6.1573 mm, with a standard deviation (SD) of 5.6008 mm and a percentage of total heterogeneity I² of 92.33% (p < 0.0001). For new bone, the effect size was 0.88 mm, CI 95% - 0.25 to 2.01 mm, τ² = 1.3108 mm (SD = 1.2021 mm) and I² = 80.46%, p = 0.0004). With regard to the new periodontal ligament, it was not possible for the meta-analysis to be performed. MSCs have a greater capacity for tissue regeneration in root cementum than in alveolar bone compared to other regenerative materials.

Modification of implant surfaces to stimulate mesenchymal cell activation

BACKGROUND

The process of osteointegration, as key point has the activation of mesenchymal cells at implant-bone interspace, their differentiation into osteoblasts and connection between the implant surface and the surrounding bone.

MAIN TEXT

Implant surfaces composed by biocompatible, organism-friendly materials require changes in content and surface morphology; changes that may further stimulate mesenchymal cell activation. The way the implant surfaces are affected with advantages and disadvantages, that typically bring each methodology, is also the purpose of this study. The study is of review type, based on finding articles about implant surface modification, with the aim of promoting the mesenchymal cell activation, utilizing keyword combination.

CONCLUSIONS

Implant success beyond the human element of the practicioner and the protocol element of implant treatment, also relies on the application of the right type of implant, at the right implant site, in accordance with oral and individual health status of the patient. Implant success does not depend on type of "coating" material of the implants. Based at this physiological process, the success or implant failure is not a process depending on the type of selected implant, because types of synthetic or natural materials that promote osteointegration are relatively in large number.

Application of dental pulp stem cells in oral maxillofacial tissue engineering

In the maxillofacial area, soft and hard tissue abnormalities are caused by trauma, tumors, infection, and other causes that expose the maxillofacial region to the surface of the human body. Patients' normal physiological function and appearance are interfered with, and their mental health is adversely impacted, reducing their overall life quality. The pursuit of appropriate medical treatments to correct these abnormalities is thus vital. Autologous stem cell regeneration technology mainly focused on tissues has lately emerged as a significant problem in the medical community. Because of the capacity of dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) to self-renew, the use of DPSCs from the human pulp tissues of deciduous teeth or permanent teeth has gained popularity among scientists as a stem cell-based therapy option. Aside from that, they are simple to extract and have minimal immunogenicity. As a result, bone tissue engineering may be a critical component in treating maxillofacial and periodontal bone abnormalities. DPSCs activity in maxillofacial and periodontal tissue-engineered bone tissue was investigated in this research.

Potential of Bone-Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Maxillofacial and Periodontal Regeneration: A Narrative Review

Bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) are one of the most widely studied postnatal stem cell populations and are considered to utilize more frequently in cell-based therapy and cancer. These types of stem cells can undergo multilineage differentiation including blood cells, cardiac cells, and osteogenic cells differentiation, thus providing an alternative source of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for tissue engineering and personalized medicine. Despite the ability to reprogram human adult somatic cells to induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) in culture which provided a great opportunity and opened the new door for establishing the in vitro disease modeling and generating an unlimited source for cell base therapy, using MSCs for regeneration purposes still have a great chance to cure diseases. In this review, we discuss the important issues in MSCs biology including the origin and functions of MSCs and their application for craniofacial and periodontal tissue regeneration, discuss the potential and clinical applications of this type of stem cells in differentiation to maxillofacial bone and cartilage in vitro, and address important future hopes and challenges in this field.

Collagen Nanofilm-Coated Partially Deproteinized Bone Combined With Bone Mesenchymal Stem Cells for Rat Femoral Defect Repair by Bone Tissue Engineering

BACKGROUND

The advantages of good biocompatibility, low degradation and low antigenicity of collagen, and the osteogenic differentiation characteristics of bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) were used to promote the recovery of bone defects using partially deproteinized bone (PDPB) by bone tissue engineering (BTE).

METHODS

The BMSCs were identified by examining their potential for osteogenic, lipogenic, and chondrogenic differentiation. The prepared pure PDPB was ground into bone blocks 4 × 2 × 2 mm in size, which were divided into the following groups: PDPB group, PDPB + collagen group, PDPB + collagen + BMSC group, PDPB with a composite collagen nanofilm, and BMSCs injected into the tail vein. At 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks after surgery, the effects of the implants in the different groups on bone defect repair were continuously and dynamically observed through x-ray examination, gross specimen observation, histological evaluation, and microvascularization detection.

RESULTS

Postoperative x-ray examination and gross specimen observation revealed that, after 4 to 8 weeks, the external contour of the graft was gradually weakened, and the transverse comparison showed that the absorption of the graft and fusion of the defect were more obvious in PDPB + collagen + BMSC group than in PDPB group and PDPB + collagen group, and the healing was better (P < 0.05). Hematoxylin and eosin staining of histological sections showed very active proliferation of trabecular hematopoietic cells in groups PDPB + collagen + BMSC and PDPB + collagen. Masson's trichrome staining for evaluation of bone defect repair showed that the mean percent area of collagen fibers was greater in PDPB + collagen + BMSC group than in the PDPB group, with degradation of the scaffold material and the completion of repair. Immunofluorescence staining showed significantly enhanced expression of the vascular marker CD31 in group C (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed hybrid structure of the collagen matrix and PDPB provides an ideal 3-dimensional microenvironment for patient-specific BTE and cell therapy applications. The results showed that collagen appeared to regulate MSC-mediated osteogenesis and increase the migration and invasion of BMSCs. The combination of collagen nanofilm and biological bone transplantation with BMSC transplantation enhanced the proliferation and potential of the BMSCs for bone regeneration, successfully promoting bone repair after implantation at the defect site. This method may provide a new idea for treating clinical bone defects through BTE.

The Emerging Role of Stem Cells in Regenerative Dentistry

Progress of modern dentistry is accelerating at a spectacular speed in the scientific, technological and clinical areas. Practical examples are the advancement in the digital field, which has guaranteed an average level of prosthetic practices for all patients, as well as other scientific developments, including research on stem cell biology. Given their plasticity, defined as the ability to differentiate into specific cell lineages with a capacity of almost unlimited self-renewal and release of trophic/immunomodulatory factors, stem cells have gained significant scientific and commercial interest in the last 15 years. Stem cells that can be isolated from various tissues of the oral cavity have emerged as attractive sources for bone and dental regeneration, mainly due to their ease of accessibility. This review will present the current understanding of emerging conceptual and technological issues of the use of stem cells to treat bone and dental loss defects. In particular, we will focus on the clinical application of stem cells, either directly isolated from oral sources or in vitro reprogrammed from somatic cells (induced pluripotent stem cells). Research aimed at further unraveling stem cell plasticity will allow to identify optimal stem cell sources and characteristics, to develop novel regenerative tools in dentistry.

Neural crest-like stem cells for tissue regeneration

Neural crest stem cells (NCSCs) are a transient population of cells that arise during early vertebrate development and harbor stem cell properties, such as self‐renewal and multipotency. These cells form at the interface of non‐neuronal ectoderm and neural tube and undergo extensive migration whereupon they contribute to a diverse array of cell and tissue derivatives, ranging from craniofacial tissues to cells of the peripheral nervous system. Neural crest‐like stem cells (NCLSCs) can be derived from pluripotent stem cells, placental tissues, adult tissues, and somatic cell reprogramming. NCLSCs have a differentiation capability similar to NCSCs, and possess great potential for regenerative medicine applications. In this review, we present recent developments on the various approaches to derive NCLSCs and the therapeutic application of these cells for tissue regeneration.

Evidence for AJUBA-catenin-CDH4-linked differentiation resistance of mesenchymal stem cells implies tumorigenesis and progression of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: a single-cell transcriptome approach

An increasing number of reports indicate that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) play an essential role in promoting tumorigenesis and progression of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC). However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this process remain unclear. Using the MSC model system, this study analyzes the molecular pathway by which differentiation resistant MSCs promote HNSCC. MSCs were cultured in osteogenic differentiation media and harvested on days 12 and 19. Cells were stained for cell differentiation analysis using Alizarin Red. The osteogenesis-resistant MSCs (OR-MSCs) and MSC-differentiation-derived osteoblasts (D-OSTBs) were identified and subjected to the single-cell transcriptome analysis. Gene-specific analyses of these two sub-populations were performed for the patterns of differential expression. A total of 1 780 differentially expressed genes were determined to distinguish OR-MSCs significantly from D-OSTB. Notably, AJUBA, β-catenin, and CDH4 expression levels were upregulated considerably within the OR-MSCs compared to D-OSTBs. To confirm their clinical relevance, a survey of a clinical cohort revealed a high correlation among the expression levels of AJUBA, β-catenin and CDH4. The results shed new light that OR-MSCs participate in the development of HNSCC via a pathway mediated by AJUBA, β-catenin, CDH4, and CTNNB1, thereby implying that MSC-based therapy is a promising therapeutic approach in the management of HNSCC.

Superior CKIP-1 sensitivity of orofacial bone-derived mesenchymal stem cells in proliferation and osteogenic differentiation compared to long bone-derived mesenchymal stem cells

Maxillofacial bone defects caused by multiple factors, including congenital deformations and tumors, have become a research focus in the field of oral medicine. Bone tissue engineering is increasingly regarded as a potential approach for maxillofacial bone repair. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) with different origins display various biological characteristics. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of casein kinase‑2 interaction protein‑1 (CKIP‑1) on MSCs, including femoral bone marrow‑derived MSCs (BMMSCs) and orofacial bone‑derived MSCs (OMSCs), isolated from the femoral and orofacial bones of wild‑type (WT) and CKIP‑1 knockout (KO) mice. MSCs were isolated using collagenase II and the main biological characteristics, including proliferation, apoptosis and osteogenic differentiation, were investigated. Subcutaneous transplantation of MSCs in mice was also performed to assess ectopic bone formation. MTT and clone formation assay results indicated that cell proliferation in the KO group was increased compared with the WT group, and OMSCs exhibited significantly increased levels of proliferation compared with BMMSCs. However, the proportion of apoptotic cells was not significantly different between CKIP‑1 KO OMSCs and BMMSCs. Furthermore, it was revealed that osteogenic differentiation was increased in CKIP‑1 KO MSCs compared with WT MSCs, particularly in OMSCs. Consistent with the in vitro results, enhanced ectopic bone formation was observed in CKIP‑1 KO mice compared with WT mice, particularly in OMSCs compared with BMMSCs. In conclusion, the present results indicated that OMSCs may have a superior sensitivity to CKIP‑1 in promoting osteogenesis compared with BMMSCs; therefore, CKIP‑1 KO in OMSCs may serve as an efficient strategy for maxillofacial bone repair.

Hydrogels Based Drug Delivery Synthesis, Characterization and Administration

Hydrogels represent 3D polymeric networks specially designed for various medical applications. Due to their porous structure, they are able to swollen and to entrap large amounts of therapeutic agents and other molecules. In addition, their biocompatibility and biodegradability properties, together with a controlled release profile, make hydrogels a potential drug delivery system. In vivo studies have demonstrated their effectiveness as curing platforms for various diseases and affections. In addition, the results of the clinical trials are very encouraging and promising for the use of hydrogels as future target therapy strategies.

Enhancing cell seeding and osteogenesis of MSCs on 3D printed scaffolds through injectable BMP2 immobilized ECM-Mimetic gel

OBJECTIVE

Design of bioactive scaffolds with osteogenic capacity is a central challenge in cell-based patient-specific bone tissue engineering. Efficient and spatially uniform seeding of (stem) cells onto such constructs is vital to attain functional tissues. Herein we developed heparin functionalized collagen gels supported by 3D printed bioceramic scaffolds, as bone extracellular matrix (ECM)-mimetic matrices. These matrices were designed to enhance cell seeding efficiency of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) as well as improve their osteogenic differentiation through immobilized bone morphogenic protein 2 (BMP2) to be used for personalized bone regeneration.

METHODS

A 3D gel based on heparin-conjugated collagen matrix capable of immobilizing recombinant human bone morphogenic protein 2 (BMP2) was synthesized. Isolated dental pulp Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were then encapsulated into the bone ECM microenvironment to efficiently and uniformly seed a bioactive ceramic-based scaffold fabricated using additive manufacturing technique. The designed 3D cell-laden constructs were comprehensively investigated trough in vitro assays and in vivo study.

RESULTS

In-depth rheological characterizations of heparin-conjugated collagen gel revealed that elasticity of the matrix is significantly improved compared with freely incorporated heparin. Investigation of the MSCs laden collagen-heparin hydrogels revealed their capability to provide spatiotemporal bioavailability of BMP2 while suppressing the matrix contraction over time. The in vivo histology and real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analysis showed that the designed construct supported the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs and induced the ectopic bone formation in rat model.

SIGNIFICANCE

The presented hybrid constructs combine bone ECM chemical cues with mechanical function providing an ideal 3D microenvironment for patient-specific bone tissue engineering and cell therapy applications. The implemented methodology in design of ECM-mimetic 3D matrix capable of immobilizing BMP2 to improve seeding efficiency of customized scaffolds can be exploited for other bioactive molecules.