Hormone Receptor Loss in Breast Cancer: Molecular Mechanisms, Clinical Settings, and Therapeutic Implications

Anti-Tumor Immunity to Patient-Derived Breast Cancer Cells by Vaccination with Interferon-Alpha-Conditioned Dendritic Cells (IFN-DC)

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer represents one of the leading causes of death among women. Surgery can be effective, but once breast cancer has metastasized, it becomes extremely difficult to treat. Conventional therapies are associated with substantial toxicity and poor efficacy due to tumor heterogeneity, treatment resistance and disease relapse. Moreover, immune checkpoint blockade appears to offer limited benefit in breast cancer. The poor tumor immunogenicity and the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment result in scarce T-cell infiltration, leading to a low response rate. Thus, there is considerable interest in the development of improved active immunotherapies capable of sensitizing a patient's immune system against tumor cells.

METHODS

We evaluated the in vitro anti-tumor activity of a personalized vaccine based on dendritic cells generated in the presence of interferon (IFN)-α and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (IFN-DC) and loaded with an oxidized lysate from autologous tumor cells expanded as 3D organoid culture maintaining faithful tumor antigenic profiles.

RESULTS

Our findings demonstrate that stimulation of breast cancer patients' lymphocytes with autologous IFN-DC led to efficient Th1-biased response and the generation in vitro of potent cytotoxic activity toward the patients' own tumor cells.

CONCLUSIONS

This approach can be potentially applied in association with checkpoint blockade and chemotherapy in the design of new combinatorial therapies for breast cancer.

Estrogen-Receptor Loss and ESR1 Mutation in Estrogen-Receptor-Positive Metastatic Breast Cancer and the Effect on Overall Survival

In patients with metastatic estrogen-receptor (ER)-positive HER2-negative breast cancer, the loss of ER expression and the mutation of ESR1-the gene encoding the ER receptor-are mechanisms for resistance to endocrine therapy. We aimed to determine the frequency of these mechanisms and their interaction. Metastases were retrieved from our pathology files. ESR1 hotspot mutations resulting in p.(D538G), p.(Y537S), and p.(L536H) were determined by means of pyrosequencing. Clinical data were retrieved from electronic medical records. A total of 136 metastases were available for analysis. ER loss was found in 23 metastases (17%). ESR1 mutations were found in 18 metastases (13%), including p.(D538G) in 9, p.(Y537S) in 7, and p.(L536H) in 2. ESR1 mutation and ER loss were mutually exclusive (p = 0.042), and ESR1 mutation was associated with endocrine therapy (p = 0.002). ESR1 mutation was found in two primary breast cancers. ESR1 mutations are rare in primary breast cancer and develop in metastases during endocrine therapy. Furthermore, ER loss had a statistically significant negative effect on overall survival when compared to patients without ER loss, with a rate ratio of 3.21 (confidence interval 1.95-5.26). No such effect was observed for ESR1 mutations, with a rate ratio of 1.15 (confidence interval 0.67-1.95). We conclude that ER loss and ESR1 mutation together account for 30% of the resistance to endocrine therapy.

Investigating the effect of hesperetin on estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) expression, phosphorylation and activity in MCF-7 cells

PURPOSE

The most common malignancy among women worldwide is breast cancer. The estrogen receptor plays a vital role in this cancer. One of the most well-known mechanisms that affects the activity of this receptor is its phosphorylation by protein kinase pathways. Hesperetin, a flavonoid abundant in citrus species such as lemons, grapefruits, and oranges, is the aglycone form of hesperidin. It has undergone thorough evaluation for its potential anti-cancer properties, particularly in the context of breast cancer. Studies have shown that hesperetin has an effect on intracellular kinase pathways. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of hesperetin on the expression, phosphorylation and activity of estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) in MCF-7 breast cancer cell line.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

MCF-7 cells were cultured in RPMI-1640 phenol red-free medium supplemented with charcoal-stripped FBS and treated with hesperetin. The MTT method was used to evaluate cell survival. The levels of the ERα protein and its phosphorylated form (Ser118) were determined via western blotting. A luciferase reporter vector was used to evaluate ERE activity.

RESULTS

The results of this study indicated that hesperetin reduced the survival of MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent manner. The expression and phosphorylation (at Ser118) of the ERα significantly increased and decreased, respectively, in the groups treated with hesperetin. Hesperetin increased the activity of the ERα in the absence of E2, although these differences were not statistically significant. Conversely, in the presence of E2, hesperetin caused a significant decrease in receptor activity.

CONCLUSION

Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that hesperetin has a significant effect on ERα expression, phosphorylation and activity.

Multidisciplinary and Tailored Treatment of Locally Advanced Breast Cancer in Progression during Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy: Case Report

Locally advanced breast cancer (LABC) is a complex disease that requires a multidisciplinary approach. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) is usually performed in order to achieve loco-regional radical resection; although its importance in the multidisciplinary approach to LABC is well recognized, a small number of patients show Progressive Disease (PD). No standard salvage treatment (ST) has been defined and different strategies can be adopted, such as second-line systemic therapies, radiation therapy, and surgery. Herein, a case of LABC in PD during NAC is reported with a literature review, with the aim of highlighting the importance of a tailored multidisciplinary treatment for each patient.

P. S, C. E. A, Rajarajan S, Sahoo S, Mohan G, Jaikumar VS, Ramesh RS, B. S. S, Jolly MK, Maliekal TT, Prabhu JS. Elucidating the Role of MicroRNA-18a in Propelling a Hybrid Epithelial-Mesenchymal Phenotype and Driving Malignant Progression in ER-Negative Breast Cancer

Epigenetic alterations that lead to differential expression of microRNAs (miRNAs/miR) are known to regulate tumour cell states, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and the progression to metastasis in breast cancer. This study explores the key contribution of miRNA-18a in mediating a hybrid E/M cell state that is pivotal to the malignant transformation and tumour progression in the aggressive ER-negative subtype of breast cancer. The expression status and associated effects of miR-18a were evaluated in patient-derived breast tumour samples in combination with gene expression data from public datasets, and further validated in in vitro and in vivo breast cancer model systems. The clinical relevance of the study findings was corroborated against human breast tumour specimens (n = 446 patients). The down-regulated expression of miR-18a observed in ER-negative tumours was found to drive the enrichment of hybrid epithelial/mesenchymal (E/M) cells with luminal attributes, enhanced traits of migration, stemness, drug-resistance and immunosuppression. Further analysis of the miR-18a targets highlighted possible hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α)-mediated signalling in these tumours. This is a foremost report that validates the dual role of miR-18a in breast cancer that is subtype-specific based on hormone receptor expression. The study also features a novel association of low miR-18a levels and subsequent enrichment of hybrid E/M cells, increased migration and stemness in a subgroup of ER-negative tumours that may be attributed to HIF-1α mediated signalling. The results highlight the possibility of stratifying the ER-negative disease into clinically relevant groups by analysing miRNA signatures.

Tumor heterogeneity and clinically invisible micrometastases in metastatic breast cancer-a call for enhanced surveillance strategies

The biology of metastatic breast cancer (MBC) is understudied, primarily due to the difficulty of procuring multiple samples from patients with oligometastatic breast cancer. We developed a rapid postmortem tissue procurement program that allows the collection and analysis of numerous metastatic lesions, subclinical locations, and potential pre-metastatic niches that fall within this scope. We conducted a rapid postmortem tissue collection study on 9 patients with MBC. Patients and their families consented to donate tissues immediately after death in an IRB-approved study. Various disease subtypes, progression histories, organ involvement, and final causes of death are reported. In patients with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) disease, estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), HER2, and Ki-67 expression were heterogeneous across metastatic lesions within individual patients. Disease phenotype at the end of life trended toward complete loss of HR expression. Nearly all (n = 7) patients exhibited extensive tumor involvement of additional organs that had not been previously diagnosed clinically and were not retrospectively visible on recent imaging. Of these seven individuals, three included organs uncommonly associated with MBC: kidney, spleen, pancreas, and ovary. Finally, we identified clinically undetectable micrometastases in several organs uncommonly involved in MBC. Our findings raise several clinically relevant questions regarding the mechanisms of metastatic progression. Insights from this study argue for better surveillance strategies for monitoring MBC. We highlight the need to capture more accurate biomarker information in the context of heterogeneous disease and urge the consideration of treatment strategies that combine multiple targeted therapies.

Gastrin-releasing peptide receptor as a theranostic target in breast cancer: a systematic scoping review

The gastrin-releasing peptide receptor (GRPR) is known to be overexpressed in breast cancer, making it a promising target for both imaging and therapy within a theranostic framework. Various radioligands targeting GRPR have undergone investigation in preclinical and clinical studies related to breast cancer. This systematic scoping review aimed to assess the current evidence on GRPR-targeted radioligands for diagnostic and therapeutic applications in breast cancer. The methodology followed the PRISMA-ScR protocol. The literature search was conducted in September 2023 and encompassed MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane, and Scopus databases. We included original peer-reviewed studies focused on breast cancer patients or in vivo breast cancer models. Two reviewers performed the study selection process independently. Data were extracted, synthesized, and categorized into preclinical and clinical studies, further subdivided based on radioligand properties. A total of 35 original studies were included in the review, with three of them evaluating therapeutic outcomes. The results indicated that GRPR-radioantagonists are superior to GRPR-agonists, exhibiting preferable in vivo stability, rapid, specific tumor targeting, and enhanced retention. Both preclinical and clinical evaluations demonstrated renal excretion and high uptake in normal GRPR-expressing tissue, primarily the pancreas. A significant positive correlation was observed between GRPR and estrogen-receptor expression. In the clinical setting, GRPR-radioligands effectively detected primary tumors and, to a lesser extent, lymph node metastases. Moreover, GRPR-targeted radioantagonists successfully identified distant metastases originating from various sites in advanced metastatic disease, strongly correlated with positive estrogen receptor expression. Preclinical therapeutic evaluation of GRPR-radioligands labeled with lutetium-177 showed promising tumor responses, and none of the studies reported any observed or measured side effects, indicating a safe profile. In conclusion, the evidence presented in this review indicates a preference for GRPR-targeted antagonists over agonists, owing to their superior kinetics and promising diagnostic potential. Clinical assessments suggested diagnostic value for GRPR-targeted theranostics in breast cancer patients, particularly those with high estrogen receptor expression. Nevertheless, in the therapeutic clinical context, paying attention to the radiation dose administered to the pancreas and kidneys is crucial.

ER status conversion and subsequent treatment: an assessment of negative ER expression detected by 18F-FES PET in metastatic breast cancer patients with ER-positive primary tumors

Background

The 18F-fluoroestradiol positron emission tomography/computed tomography (18F-FES PET/CT) technique provides a convenient method to evaluate the overall estrogen receptor (ER) expression in metastatic breast cancer (MBC) patients. There are long debates on the characteristics and treatment strategy of patients with positive primary ER lesions but negative ER expression in metastatic disease. 18F-FES PET offers an opportunity to answer this question.

Objectives

This study aimed to characterize the primary ER-positive patients with advanced-stage FES negativity and investigate the real-world treatment decisions made by physicians subsequently, and compare the efficacy between different regimens.

Design

This observational cohort study was conducted at Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, enrolling breast cancer patients with ER-positive primary tumors who showed advanced-stage FES negativity.

Methods

Descriptive statistics were used in clinicopathologic characteristics and compared with a chi-square test or t-test. In addition, progression-free survival (PFS) was estimated by the Kaplan-Meier method and compared by log-rank test.

Results

16.6% (52/314) of patients with an ER-positive primary tumor had negative ER expression assessed by 18F-FES for MBC prior to receiving first-line systemic therapy, among whom adjuvant endocrine therapy was prevalently utilized (86.5%, 45/52). The rate of FES negativity in the advanced stage was negatively correlated with levels of ER expression of primary tumors. Chemotherapy (83.3%, 40/48) was the most common treatment strategy afterward, among which capecitabine monotherapy (62.5%, 25/40) was a dominant alternative. PFS was significantly prolonged with capecitabine alone versus other chemotherapy (median PFS: 13.14 versus 6.21 months, p = 0.029).

Conclusion

Negative conversion of ER in MBC detected by 18F-FES occurred frequently. Patients with lower ER expression in the primary lesion were more likely to have negative ER expression in the metastasis. In real-world clinical practice, most physicians primarily opted for chemotherapy, with capecitabine monotherapy being a commonly selected regimen.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT05797987.

Transcriptomic Integration Analyses Uncover Common Bisphenol A Effects Across Species and Tissues Primarily Mediated by Disruption of JUN/FOS, EGFR, ER, PPARG, and P53 Pathways

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a common endocrine disruptor widely used in the production of electronic, sports, and medical equipment, as well as consumer products like milk bottles, dental sealants, and thermal paper. Despite its widespread use, current assessments of BPA exposure risks remain limited due to the lack of comprehensive cross-species comparative analyses. To address this gap, we conducted a study aimed at identifying genes and fundamental molecular processes consistently affected by BPA in various species and tissues, employing an effective data integration method and bioinformatic analyses. Our findings revealed that exposure to BPA led to significant changes in processes like lipid metabolism, proliferation, and apoptosis in the tissues/cells of mammals, fish, and nematodes. These processes were found to be commonly affected in adipose, liver, mammary, uterus, testes, and ovary tissues. Additionally, through an in-depth analysis of signaling pathways influenced by BPA in different species and tissues, we observed that the JUN/FOS, EGFR, ER, PPARG, and P53 pathways, along with their downstream key transcription factors and kinases, were all impacted by BPA. Our study provides compelling evidence that BPA indeed induces similar toxic effects across different species and tissues. Furthermore, our investigation sheds light on the underlying molecular mechanisms responsible for these toxic effects. By uncovering these mechanisms, we gain valuable insights into the potential health implications associated with BPA exposure, highlighting the importance of comprehensive assessments and awareness of this widespread endocrine disruptor.

Clinicopathological features and survival outcomes of luminal-like breast tumors with estrogen receptor loss at metastatic recurrence: A case-control study

INTRODUCTION

Estrogen receptor (ER) loss at metastatic relapse occurs in up to 20% of luminal-like primary breast tumors. Data about clinicopathological features associated with ER loss and its prognostic significance are limited.

METHODS

In a nested-case-control study, we compared clinicopathological characteristics and clinical outcomes between a cohort of 51 patients with primary ER+ /HER2- and paired triple-negative metastasis (LUM-TN) and two control cohorts of paired early-metastatic ER+ /HER2- (LUM-LUM, n = 50) and triple-negative (TN-TN, n = 49) breast cancers. Stromal tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) were assessed according to the TILs Working Group recommendations as continuous and discrete variables with cutoffs (20%, 40%).

RESULTS

LUM-TN tumors had lower ER expression than LUM-LUM tumors, but lower grade and Ki67 than TN-TN cases. Median distant-metastasis free survival was similar for LUM-TN and LUM-LUM cohorts, but significantly longer than in TN-TN cases (log-rank P < 0.001). LUM-TN and TN-TN cohorts had a comparable survival from the time of metastatic recurrence, which was significantly shorter than in patients with LUM-LUM tumors (log-rank P < 0.001). High TILs were associated with worse outcomes in patients with ER loss (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Breast tumors with ER loss at metastatic relapse have intermediate features and outcomes compared with metastatic luminal-like and ab initio triple-negative tumors. Further investigation on the biological mechanisms underpinning the loss of ER expression is ongoing.

Enhancing Tamoxifen Therapy with α-Mangostin: Synergistic Antiproliferative Effects on Breast Cancer Cells and Potential Reduced Endometrial Impact

Breast cancer is the most prevalent neoplasia among women worldwide. For the estrogen receptor-positive (ER+) phenotype, tamoxifen is the standard hormonal therapy; however, it carries the risk of promoting endometrial carcinoma. Hence, we aimed to evaluate the antiproliferative effect of the phytochemical α-mangostin (AM) as a co-adjuvant alongside tamoxifen on breast cancer cells to improve its efficacy while reducing its adverse effects on endometrium. For this, ER+ breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and T-47D) and endometrial cells (N30) were treated with AM, 4-hydroxytamoxifen (4-OH-TMX), and their combination. Cell proliferation was evaluated using sulforhodamine B assay, and the pharmacological interaction was determined through the combination index and the dose reduction index calculation. The genes KCNH1, CCDN1, MKI67, and BIRC5 were amplified by real-time PCR as indicators of oncogenesis, cell cycle progression, cell proliferation, and apoptosis, respectively. Additionally, genes involved in ER signaling were analyzed. In breast cancer cells, the combination of AM with 4-OH-TMX showed a synergistic antiproliferative effect and favorable dose reduction. AM and 4-OH-TMX decreased KCNH1, CCND1, and BIRC5 gene expression. In endometrial cells, AM decreased MKI-67 gene expression, while it reverted the 4-OH-TMX-dependent CCND1 upregulation. This study establishes the benefits of incorporating AM as a co-adjuvant for first-line ER+ breast cancer therapy.

Estrogen-Receptor-Low-Positive Breast Cancer: Pathological and Clinical Perspectives

The expression of estrogen receptors (ERs) in breast cancer (BC) represents a strong prognostic and predictive biomarker and directs therapeutic decisions in early and advanced stages. ER-low-positive BC, defined by the immunohistochemical (IHC) expression of ERs from 1% to 9%, constitutes a distinct subset of total BC cases. Guidelines recommend that a low expression of ERs be reported in pathology reports since the benefit of endocrine therapy in patients with ER-low-positive BC is uncertain. Recently, several cohorts, mostly of a retrospective nature, have been published, reporting the clinicopathological characteristics and outcomes of ER-low-positive BC. However, the majority of the data focus on early-stage BC and the use of (neo)adjuvant therapy, and there is a significant lack of data regarding metastatic ER-low-positive BC. Further factors, including tumor heterogeneity as well as the potential loss of ER expression due to endocrine resistance, should be considered. Including patients with ER-low-positive BC in clinical trials for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) might improve the understanding of this entity and allow novel therapeutic approaches. The design and conduction of randomized clinical trials regarding this subgroup of patients are greatly anticipated.

Critical Roles of SRC-3 in the Development and Progression of Breast Cancer, Rendering It a Prospective Clinical Target

Breast cancer (BCa) is the most frequently diagnosed malignant tumor in women and is also one of the leading causes of cancer-related death. Most breast tumors are hormone-dependent and estrogen signaling plays a critical role in promoting the survival and malignant behaviors of these cells. Estrogen signaling involves ligand-activated cytoplasmic estrogen receptors that translocate to the nucleus with various co-regulators, such as steroid receptor co-activator (SRC) family members, and bind to the promoters of target genes and regulate their expression. SRC-3 is a member of this family that interacts with, and enhances, the transcriptional activity of the ligand activated estrogen receptor. Although SRC-3 has important roles in normal homeostasis and developmental processes, it has been shown to be amplified and overexpressed in breast cancer and to promote malignancy. The malignancy-promoting potential of SRC-3 is diverse and involves both promoting malignant behavior of tumor cells and creating a tumor microenvironment that has an immunosuppressive phenotype. SRC-3 also inhibits the recruitment of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes with effector function and promotes stemness. Furthermore, SRC-3 is also involved in the development of resistance to hormone therapy and immunotherapy during breast cancer treatment. The versatility of SRC-3 in promoting breast cancer malignancy in this way makes it a good target, and methodical targeting of SRC-3 probably will be important for the success of breast cancer treatment.

Blocking of oestrogen signals improves anti-tumour effect regardless of oestrogen receptor alpha expression in cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Anti-oestrogenic therapy has been used for breast cancer patients with oestrogen susceptibility cancer cells. However, little has been known about its potential role for immune cell biology within TME, particularly in cancer patients without oestrogen sensitivity of tumour cells. Therefore, we aimed to study the effect of oestrogen on immunity within TME.

METHODS

Using a clinical dataset, immune cells of humans and mice, female mice with and without ovaries, and several murine ERα-negative cancer cell lines, we evaluated the effect of oestrogen on immunity in TME.

RESULTS

Clinical data analysis suggested oestrogen's suppressive efficacy against CTLs. Additionally, in vitro and in vivo experiments revealed intra-tumoural CTLs' direct repressive action by oestrogen in both mice and humans; blockade of oestrogen signals cancelled its immunosuppression resulting in tumour growth reduction in vivo. Most notably, immunotherapy (immune checkpoint inhibitor; ICI) combined with anti-oestrogenic therapy exhibited a dramatic anti-tumour effect.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides novel insights into how oestrogen contributes to tumour progression and a therapeutic rationale for blocking oestrogen signalling to boost the anti-tumour effect of ICI, regardless of tumour cells' ERα expression.

Unveiling the Role of Hormonal Imbalance in Breast Cancer Development: A Comprehensive Review

Breast cancer is a complex and multifactorial disease with a significant global impact. Hormonal imbalance has emerged as a crucial factor in breast cancer development, highlighting the importance of understanding the intricate interplay between hormones and breast tissue. This comprehensive review aims to unveil the role of hormonal imbalance in breast cancer by exploring the involvement of key hormones, including estrogen and progesterone, and their receptors in tumor development. The review delves into how hormonal imbalance impacts breast tissue, emphasizing the significance of hormone receptor status in guiding treatment decisions. Furthermore, the review investigates the influence of other hormones, such as insulin and growth factors, and their cross-talk with hormone pathways in breast cancer progression. The implications of hormonal imbalance assessment in breast cancer risk assessment and the importance of hormone testing in diagnosis and treatment decisions are also discussed. Moreover, the review provides an overview of the various hormonal therapies used in breast cancer treatment, their benefits, limitations, and ongoing research efforts to optimize their efficacy and overcome resistance. Future directions in hormonal therapy research, including developing novel therapies and personalized medicine approaches, are explored. This review underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding of hormonal imbalance in breast cancer to enhance prevention, diagnosis, and treatment strategies, ultimately improving outcomes for individuals affected by this disease.

Positive p53 Expression Is Associated with Primary Endocrine Therapy Resistance in Locally Advanced Stage Luminal B HER2-Negative Breast Cancer Patients: A Cross-Sectional Study in Indonesia

Luminal B HER2-negative breast cancer (BC) is the most common type in Indonesian BC patients, and frequently manifests with locally advanced staging. Recurrence often occurs within two years of the endocrine therapy course (primary endocrine therapy (ET) resistance). p53 mutation often exists in luminal B HER2-negative BC, but its application as an ET resistance predictor in those populations is still limited. The primary purpose of this research is to evaluate p53 expression and its association with primary ET resistance in luminal B HER2-negative BC. This cross-sectional study compiled 67 luminal B HER2-negative patients' clinical data during their pre-treatment period until they completed a two-year course of endocrine therapy. They were divided into two groups: 29 patients with primary ET resistance and 38 without primary ET resistance. Pre-treatment paraffin blocks from each patient were retrieved, and the p53 expression difference between the two groups was analyzed. Positive p53 expression was significantly higher in patients with primary ET resistance [odds ratio (OR) of 11.78 (95% CI: 3.72-37.37, p-value < 0.0001)]. We conclude that p53 expression could be a beneficial marker for primary ET resistance in locally advanced luminal B HER2-negative BC.

Proteogenomics decodes the evolution of human ipsilateral breast cancer

Ipsilateral breast tumor recurrence (IBTR) is a clinically important event, where an isolated in-breast recurrence is a potentially curable event but associated with an increased risk of distant metastasis and breast cancer death. It remains unclear if IBTRs are associated with molecular changes that can be explored as a resource for precision medicine strategies. Here, we employed proteogenomics to analyze a cohort of 27 primary breast cancers and their matched IBTRs to define proteogenomic determinants of molecular tumor evolution. Our analyses revealed a relationship between hormonal receptors status and proliferation levels resulting in the gain of somatic mutations and copy number. This in turn re-programmed the transcriptome and proteome towards a highly replicating and genomically unstable IBTRs, possibly enhanced by APOBEC3B. In order to investigate the origins of IBTRs, a second analysis that included primaries with no recurrence pinpointed proliferation and immune infiltration as predictive of IBTR. In conclusion, our study shows that breast tumors evolve into different IBTRs depending on hormonal status and proliferation and that immune cell infiltration and Ki-67 are significantly elevated in primary tumors that develop IBTR. These results can serve as a starting point to explore markers to predict IBTR formation and stratify patients for adjuvant therapy.

Hormone-Dependent Cancers: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutical Implications

Hormone-dependent cancers of the breast and prostate are the most common cancers in women and men, respectively [...].

Upregulation of the EGFR/MEK1/MAPK1/2 signaling axis as a mechanism of resistance to antiestrogen‑induced BimEL dependent apoptosis in ER+ breast cancer cells

The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is commonly upregulated in multiple cancer types, including breast cancer. In the present study, evidence is provided in support of the premise that upregulation of the EGFR/MEK1/MAPK1/2 signaling axis during antiestrogen treatment facilitates the escape of breast cancer cells from BimEL‑dependent apoptosis, conferring resistance to therapy. This conclusion is based on the findings that ectopic BimEL cDNA overexpression and confocal imaging studies confirm the pro‑apoptotic role of BimEL in ERα expressing breast cancer cells and that upregulated EGFR/MEK1/MAPK1/2 signaling blocks BimEL pro‑apoptotic action in an antiestrogen‑resistant breast cancer cell model. In addition, the present study identified a pro‑survival role for autophagy in antiestrogen resistance while EGFR inhibitor studies demonstrated that a significant percentage of antiestrogen‑resistant breast cancer cells survive EGFR targeting by pro‑survival autophagy. These pre‑clinical studies establish the possibility that targeting both the MEK1/MAPK1/2 signaling axis and pro‑survival autophagy may be required to eradicate breast cancer cell survival and prevent the development of antiestrogen resistance following hormone treatments. The present study uniquely identified EGFR upregulation as one of the mechanisms breast cancer cells utilize to evade the cytotoxic effects of antiestrogens mediated through BimEL‑dependent apoptosis.

Application of Metabolic Reprogramming to Cancer Imaging and Diagnosis

Cellular metabolism governs the signaling that supports physiological mechanisms and homeostasis in an individual, including neuronal transmission, wound healing, and circadian clock manipulation. Various factors have been linked to abnormal metabolic reprogramming, including gene mutations, epigenetic modifications, altered protein epitopes, and their involvement in the development of disease, including cancer. The presence of multiple distinct hallmarks and the resulting cellular reprogramming process have gradually revealed that these metabolism-related molecules may be able to be used to track or prevent the progression of cancer. Consequently, translational medicines have been developed using metabolic substrates, precursors, and other products depending on their biochemical mechanism of action. It is important to note that these metabolic analogs can also be used for imaging and therapeutic purposes in addition to competing for metabolic functions. In particular, due to their isotopic labeling, these compounds may also be used to localize and visualize tumor cells after uptake. In this review, the current development status, applicability, and limitations of compounds targeting metabolic reprogramming are described, as well as the imaging platforms that are most suitable for each compound and the types of cancer to which they are most appropriate.

Significance and possible causes of hormone receptor expression loss in metastatic breast cancer. Phenotypic evolution of luminal <i>BRCA1</i>-associated breast cancer to triple negative subtype in lung metastasis and PARP inhibition strategy in early-line therapy

Current clinical recommendations indicate the need for a biopsy of a metastatic focus in metastatic breast cancer (BC), but the optimal frequency of additional molecular analysis remains unclear. The discordance of hormonal receptors (HR) between the primary tumor and metastatic foci has prognostic significance, while the transition from HR-positive BC to a triple negative phenotype is associated with a worse clinical prognosis. Acquisition of HR expression in primary triple negative BC is more favorable due to the wide range of options for HR-positive BC treatment. Over the past few years, PARP inhibitors have become an important therapeutic option for the treatment of various tumor types, including BC and luminal surrogate subtypes. However, some questions still remain unresolved, the most important of which are: what is the optimal sequence of the use of CDK4 / 6 inhibitors as part of combined hormone therapy and PARP inhibitors in luminal types of BRCA-associated BC and how effective is the strategy of PARP inhibition after the use of combined hormone therapy with CDK4 / 6 inhibitors? It is obvious that the answers to the questions can be partially obtained by performing a biopsy of the most clinically significant metastatic focus and selecting therapy according to the phenotypic surrogate subtype. A clinical case of the phenotypic evolution of HR-positive BRCA1-associated BC into a triple negative phenotype during metastasis to the lungs and the luminal phenotype of tumor metastasis in soft tissues is presented. Biopsy of the most clinically significant metastatic lesion in the lungs in this case changed the strategy of early-line therapy for estrogen-receptor-positive disease, when in the absence of a biopsy, a combined hormone therapy regimen with CDK4 / 6 inhibitors could be applied. At the same time, the strategy of using PARP inhibitor talazoparib, which has shown efficacy in all surrogate subtypes, should certainly be prescribed in the early line of therapy for BRCA-associated disease with loss of estrogen receptor expression. Despite the luminal phenotype of metastasis in the soft tissues of the back and the unknown status of bone metastases, the drug demonstrates efficacy in these cases as well. It should be noted that partial response according on RECIST 1.1 months with an improvement in the quality of life and the disappearance of pain syndrome was evaluated after 10 weeks of treatment. The response duration was an unprecedented 10 months.

Characteristics and survival in bone metastatic breast cancer patients with different hormone receptor status: A population-based cohort study

Background

Accumulating preclinical evidence has uncovered the indispensable role of steroid hormone and their receptors, namely, estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR), in the development of bone metastases in breast cancer. Limited data are available regarding the survival difference between different hormone receptor (HR) subgroups, and its prognostic significance is uncertain now. Such data are important for risk stratification and needed to formulate specialized regimen for bone metastatic breast cancer.

Methods

From the year of diagnosis 2010 to 2018, 554,585 breast cancer patients, among which are 19,439 with bone metastasis and 10,447 with bone-only metastasis, were extracted from the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) database. Kaplan–Meier survival analysis was performed to compare the survival difference between the different HR status subgroups. Univariate and multivariate Cox proportional hazard regression was used to validate the prognostic role of HR status and identify other prognostic factors in bone metastatic breast cancer.

Results

ER-positive/PR-positive breast cancer patients with bone metastasis showed the best breast cancer-specific survival (BCSS) and overall survival (OS) than those with other HR statuses, while single PR-positive bone metastatic breast cancers manifest similar survival with ER-negative/PR-negative ones. Adjusted Cox regression analysis demonstrated that patients with older age, male, black race, ILC, higher tumor grade, T3–T4, HER2-negative status, absence of surgery or adjuvant treatment, and HR status other than ER-positive/PR-positive tended to have worse outcomes. Further subgroup analysis based on HER2 status showed that within HER2-positive breast cancers, ER-positive/PR-positive ones still manifest better survival than the other three HR status subgroups, which are similar in survival outcomes.

Conclusion

Although collectively viewed as HR-positive breast cancers, certain distinctions exist between bone metastatic breast cancers with different HR statuses in survival outcome. Our findings indicate that despite metastasizing to the same location, the different survival rate is determined by the HR status of breast cancer. The selection and intensity of the regimen should consider HR status, and HER2 status occasionally, when treating bone metastatic breast cancer.

Chemotherapy Shows a Better Efficacy Than Endocrine Therapy in Metastatic Breast Cancer Patients with a Heterogeneous Estrogen Receptor Expression Assessed by 18F-FES PET

Background: The heterogeneity of estrogen receptor (ER) expression has long been a challenge for the diagnosis and treatment strategy of metastatic breast cancer (MBC). A novel convenient method of ER detection using 18F-fluoroestradiol positron emission tomography/computed tomography (18F-FES PET/CT) offers a chance to screen and analyze MBC patients with ER uncertainty. Methods: MBC patients who received 18F-FES PET/CT were screened and patients with both FES positive (FES+) and negative (FES-) lesions were enrolled in this study. Progression-free survival (PFS) was estimated using the Kaplan−Meier method and was compared using the log-rank test. Results: A total of 635 patients were screened and 75 of 635 (11.8%) patients showed ER uncertainty; 51 patients received further treatment and were enrolled in this study. Among them, 20 (39.2%) patients received chemotherapy (CT), 21 (41.2%) patients received endocrine-based therapy (ET), and 10 (19.6%) patients received combined therapy (CT + ET). CT showed a better progression-free survival (PFS) compared with ET (mPFS 7.1 vs. 4.6 months, HR 0.44, 95% CI 0.20−0.93, p = 0.03). CT + ET did not improve PFS compared with either CT or ET alone (mPFS 4.4 months, p > 0.2). All three treatment options were well tolerated. Conclusions: 18F-FES PET/CT could identify patients with ER heterogeneity. Patients with bone metastasis are more likely to have ER heterogeneity. Patients with ER heterogeneity showed better sensitivity to CT rather than ET. Combined therapy of CT + ET did not improve the treatment outcome.

Molecular Imaging Assessment of Hormonally Sensitive Breast Cancer: An Appraisal of 2-[18F]-Fluoro-2-Deoxy-Glucose and Newer Non-2-[18F]-Fluoro-2-Deoxy-Glucose PET Tracers

Hormone-sensitive breast cancer, which demonstrates hormone receptor positivity, accounts for approximately 75% of newly diagnosed breast cancer. 2-[18F]-Fluoro-2-deoxy-glucose is the nonspecific radiotracer of glucose metabolism as opposed to specific receptor based tracers like 16α-[18F]-fluoro-17β-estradiol and [18F]-fluoro-furanyl-norprogesterone, which provide essential information about receptor status in the management of hormonally active malignancies. The complementary information provided by (a) 2-[18F]-fluoro-2-deoxy-glucose imaging for staging and prognostication along with (b) analyzing the hormonal receptor status with receptor-based PET imaging in breast cancer can optimize tumor characterization and influence patient management.

Cutaneous metastases of internal malignancies: a single-institution experience

Aims

Cutaneous metastases of internal malignancies occur in 1–10% of cancer patients. The diagnosis can sometimes be challenging, especially in cases with an unknown primary cancer.

Materials and methods

A retrospective case review was performed including all cases of skin metastases from primary internal malignancies diagnosed at the Department of Pathology at the Maastricht University Medical Centre+ from 2007 to 2021. The clinicopathological data were collected and immunohistochemical and molecular diagnostic tests were performed to confirm the primary origin of the metastases.

Results

We identified 152 cases (71 female; 31 male patients) of cutaneous metastases of internal malignancies. 28 patients (20 women and 8 men) were diagnosed with multiple cutaneous metastases. Among the female patients, the most common primary tumour was breast cancer (50% of the cases), followed by lung (13.6%), gynaecological (7.3%), and gastrointestinal origin (7.3%). Among the male patients, the most common primary sites were gastrointestinal and lung origin (altogether, 50% of the cases). In 19 patients, the cutaneous metastasis was the first presentation of a clinically silent internal malignancy (18.6%), of which most (78.9%) represented metastatic lung carcinomas. Finally, metastasizing patterns were different across tumour types and gender.

Conclusion

Breast, lung, gastrointestinal, and gynaecologic cancers are the most common primary tumours demonstrating skin metastases. Infrequently, cutaneous metastases can be the first clinically visual manifestation of an underlying not yet diagnosed internal malignancy; therefore, occasional broad immunohistochemical profiling, molecular clonal analysis, and a continuous high level of awareness are necessary for a precise diagnosis of cutaneous metastases of internal malignancies.

Exploring new pathways in endocrine-resistant breast cancer

The most common breast cancer (BC) subtypes are hormone-dependent, being either estrogen receptor-positive (ER⁺), progesterone receptor-positive (PR⁺), or both, and altogether comprise the luminal subtype. The mainstay of treatment for luminal BC is endocrine therapy (ET), which includes several agents that act either directly targeting ER action or suppressing estrogen production. Over the years, ET has proven efficacy in reducing mortality and improving clinical outcomes in metastatic and nonmetastatic BC. However, the development of ET resistance promotes cancer survival and progression and hinders the use of endocrine agents. Several mechanisms implicated in endocrine resistance have now been extensively studied. Based on the current clinical and pre-clinical data, the present article briefly reviews the well-established pathways of ET resistance and continues by focusing on the three most recently uncovered pathways, which may mediate resistance to ET, namely receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL)/receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B (RANK), nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB), and Notch. It additionally overviews the evidence underlying the approval of combined therapies to overcome ET resistance in BC, while highlighting the relevance of future studies focusing on putative mediators of ET resistance to uncover new therapeutic options for the disease.

HER2-low-positive breast cancer: evolution from primary tumor to residual disease after neoadjuvant treatment

Approximately a half of breast tumors classified as HER2-negative exhibit HER2-low-positive expression. We recently described a high instability of HER2-low-positive expression from primary breast cancer (BC) to relapse. Previous studies reporting discordance in HER2 status between baseline biopsy and residual disease (RD) in patients undergoing neoadjuvant treatment did not include the HER2-low-positive category. The aim of this study is to track the evolution of HER2-low-positive expression from primary BC to RD after neoadjuvant treatment. Patients undergoing neoadjuvant treatment with available baseline tumor tissue and matched samples of RD (in case of no pCR) were included. HER2-negative cases were sub-classified as HER2-0 or HER2-low-positive (IHC 1+ or 2+ and ISH negative). Four-hundred forty-six patients were included. Primary BC phenotype was: HR-positive/HER2-negative 23.5%, triple-negative (TN) 35%, HER2-positive 41.5%. HER2-low-positive cases were 55.6% of the HER2-negative cohort and were significantly enriched in the HR-positive/HER2-negative vs. TN subgroup (68.6% vs. 46.8%, p = 0.001 χ2 test). In all, 35.3% of non-pCR patients (n = 291) had a HER2-low-positive expression on RD. The overall rate of HER2 expression discordance was 26.4%, mostly driven by HER2-negative cases converting either from (14.8%) or to (8.9%) HER2-low-positive phenotype. Among HR-positive/HER2-negative patients with HER2-low-positive expression on RD, 32.0% and 57.1% had an estimated high risk of relapse according to the residual proliferative cancer burden and CPS-EG score, respectively. In conclusion, HER2-low-positive expression showed high instability from primary BC to RD after neoadjuvant treatment. HER2-low-positive expression on RD may guide personalized adjuvant treatment for high-risk patients in the context of clinical trials with novel anti-HER2 antibody-drug conjugates.

Metabolic Adaptations in an Endocrine-Related Breast Cancer Mouse Model Unveil Potential Markers of Tumor Response to Hormonal Therapy

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common type of cancer in women and, in most cases, it is hormone-dependent (HD), thus relying on ovarian hormone activation of intracellular receptors to stimulate tumor growth. Endocrine therapy (ET) aimed at preventing hormone receptor activation is the primary treatment strategy, however, about half of the patients, develop resistance in time. This involves the development of hormone independent tumors that initially are ET-responsive (HI), which may subsequently become resistant (HIR). The mechanisms that promote the conversion of HI to HIR tumors are varied and not completely understood. The aim of this work was to characterize the metabolic adaptations accompanying this conversion through the analysis of the polar metabolomes of tumor tissue and non-compromised mammary gland from mice implanted subcutaneously with HD, HI and HIR tumors from a medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA)-induced BC mouse model. This was carried out by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of tissue polar extracts and data mining through multivariate and univariate statistical analysis. Initial results unveiled marked changes between global tumor profiles and non-compromised mammary gland tissues, as expected. More importantly, specific metabolic signatures were found to accompany progression from HD, through HI and to HIR tumors, impacting on amino acids, nucleotides, membrane percursors and metabolites related to oxidative stress protection mechanisms. For each transition, sets of polar metabolites are advanced as potential markers of progression, including acquisition of resistance to ET. Putative biochemical interpretation of such signatures are proposed and discussed.

Lost but Not Least-Novel Insights into Progesterone Receptor Loss in Estrogen Receptor-Positive Breast Cancer

Estrogen receptor α (ERα) and progesterone receptor (PgR) are crucial prognostic and predictive biomarkers that are usually co-expressed in breast cancer (BC). However, 12-24% of BCs present ERα(+)/PgR(-) phenotype at immunohistochemical evaluation. In fact, BC may either show primary PgR(-) status (in chemonaïve tumor sample), lose PgR expression during neoadjuvant treatment, or acquire PgR(-) phenotype in local relapse or metastasis. The loss of PgR expression in ERα(+) breast cancer may signify resistance to endocrine therapy and poorer outcomes. On the other hand, ERα(+)/PgR(-) BCs may have a better response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy than double-positive tumors. Loss of PgR expression may be a result of pre-transcriptional alterations (copy number loss, mutation, epigenetic modifications), decreased transcription of the PGR gene (e.g., by microRNAs), and post-translational modifications (e.g., phosphorylation, sumoylation). Various processes involved in the down-regulation of PgR have distinct consequences on the biology of cancer cells. Occasionally, negative PgR status detected by immunohistochemical analysis is paradoxically associated with enhanced transcriptional activity of PgR that might be inhibited by antiprogestin treatment. Identification of the mechanism of PgR loss in each patient seems challenging, yet it may provide important information on the biology of the tumor and predict its responsiveness to the therapy.

Breast Cancer Aptamers: Current Sensing Targets, Available Aptamers, and Their Evaluation for Clinical Use in Diagnostics

Breast cancer is the most commonly occurring cancer in women worldwide, and the rate of diagnosis continues to increase. Early detection and targeted treatment towards histological type is crucial to improving outcomes, but current screening methods leave some patients at risk of late diagnosis. The risk of late diagnosis and progressed disease is of particular concern for young women as current screening methods are not recommended early in life. Aptamers are oligonucleotides that can bind with high specificity to target molecules such as proteins, peptides, and other small molecules. They are relatively cheap to produce and are invariable from batch to batch, making them ideal for use in large-scale clinical or screening programs. The use of aptamers for breast cancer screening, diagnosis, and therapeutics is promising, but comparison of these aptamers and their corresponding biomarkers for use in breast cancer is significantly lacking. Here, we compare the currently available aptamers for breast cancer biomarkers and their respective biomarkers, as well as highlight the electrochemical sensors that are in development.

Insights into the Behavior of Triple-Negative MDA-MB-231 Breast Carcinoma Cells Following the Treatment with 17β-Ethinylestradiol and Levonorgestrel

Oral contraceptives (OCs) are widely used due to their efficiency in preventing unplanned pregnancies and treating several human illnesses. Despite their medical value, the toxicity of OCs remains a public concern. Previous studies indicate the carcinogenic potential of synthetic sex hormones and their link to the development and progression of hormone-dependent malignancies such as breast cancer. However, little is known about their influence on the evolution of triple-negative breast carcinoma (TNBC), a malignancy defined by the absence of estrogen, progesterone, and HER2 receptors. This study reveals that the active ingredients of modern OCs, 17β-Ethinylestradiol, Levonorgestrel, and their combination induce differential effects in MDA-MB-231 TNBC cells. The most relevant behavioral changes occurred after the 24 h treatment with 17β-Ethinylestradiol, summarized as follows: (i) decreased cell viability (64.32% at 10 µM); (ii) cell roundness and loss of confluence; (iii) apoptotic aspect of cell nuclei (fragmentation, membrane blebbing); and (iv) inhibited cell migration, suggesting a potential anticancer effect. Conversely, Levonorgestrel was generally associated with a proliferative activity. The association of the two OCs exerted similar effects as 17β-Ethinylestradiol but was less effective. Further studies are necessary to elucidate the hormones' cytotoxic mechanism of action on TNBC cells.

Prognostic significance of estrogen, progesterone and HER2 receptors' status conversion following neoadjuvant chemotherapy in patients with locally advanced breast cancer: Results from a tertiary Cancer Center in Saudi Arabia

Background

The prognostic impact of neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC) on the receptor expression status in patients with locally advanced breast cancer (LABC) is still not fully understood. We aimed to evaluate the changes in hormone (estrogen and progesterone) receptor (HR) and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) status post-NAC and their correlation with survival.

Methods

Patients with LABC who have received NAC between 2008 and 2015 and have been followed up till December 2019 at the Oncology Center, King Saud University, KSA were analyzed retrospectively. biomarker analysis of ER, PR & HER2 were done using immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Fluorescent in situ hybridization.

Results

Ninety-one patients fulfilled the inclusion criteria. HR status changed in 21(23.1%) patients, with a significant difference between patients with stable receptors and those with any receptor conversion; p = 0.000. Five (5.5%) initially HER2 negative tumors became HER2 positive and 10 (11%) initially HER2 positive tumors became HER2 negative after NAC. The difference in HER2 expression level before and after NAC was not statistically significant (p = 0.302). Univariate analysis relating patients’ characteristics and 10-years disease-free survival (DFS) showed only significant correlations with the expressions of ER, PR, and any receptor conversion, (ER and/or PR) p< 0.001, p< 0.001, and p = 0.001; respectively. In the univariate analysis, none of the clinicopathological features showed a significant correlation with the OS except for the molecular subtypes P<0.001.

Conclusions

Patients with LABC have significant changes in the ER and PR receptor status following NAC. Post-NAC expressions change of ER and PR (ER and/or PR) are correlated to DFS. Retesting of the hormone receptors should be considered after NAC in Saudi patients with LABC.