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Xue H, Nima L, Wang S, Tan J. Ultrasound assisted hot water extraction of polysaccharides from Taraxacum mongolicum: Optimization, purification, structure characterization, and antioxidant activity. J Food Sci 2024; 89:2827-2842. [PMID: 38578114 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.17065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Ultrasound assisted hot water extraction (UAHWE) was applied to extraction of polysaccharides from Taraxacum mongolicum with hot water as extract solvent. Experimental factors in UAHWE process were optimized by response surface methodology. The optimal extraction parameters to achieve the highest Taraxacum mongolicum polysaccharides (TMPs) yield (12.08 ± 0.14)% by UAHWE were obtained under the ultrasound power of 200 W, extraction temperature of 62°C, solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:20 g/mL, and extraction time of 40 min, and then the crude TMPs were further purified by DEAE-52 and Sephadex G-100 chromatography to obtain a homogenous polysaccharide fraction (TMPs-1-SG). Subsequently, the structure of TMPs-1-SG was characterized by UV-vis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), high performance gel permeation chromatography (HPGPC), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Congo red test. The results display that TMPs-1-SG with an average molecular weight of 5.49 × 104 Da was comprised of mannose (Man), galactose (Gal), xylose (Xyl), and arabinose (Ara) with a molar ratio of 39.85:52.61:27.14:6.30. Moreover, TMPs-1-SG did not contain a triple helix structure. Furthermore, TMPs-1-SG and TEM presented a sheet-like, rod-shaped, and irregular structure. Finally, the antioxidant activity of TMPs-1-SG was evaluated by in vitro experiment. The IC50 values of scavenging DPPH and OH radicals for TMPs-1-SG achieved 0.71 mg/mL and 0.75 mg/mL, respectively. The findings can provide an effective method for extracting polysaccharides from natural resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongkun Xue
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Lamu Nima
- Physical Education Institute, Jimei University, Xiamen, China
| | - Shuhe Wang
- College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering, Jimei University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jiaqi Tan
- Medical Comprehensive Experimental Center, Hebei University, Baoding, China
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2
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Duarte H, Aliaño-González MJ, Cantos-Villar E, Faleiro L, Romano A, Medronho B. Sustainable extraction of polyphenols from vine shoots using deep eutectic solvents: Influence of the solvent, Vitis sp., and extraction technique. Talanta 2024; 267:125135. [PMID: 37678005 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.125135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Vine shoots are the main by-products of grapevine pruning with no added value. In the present study, deep eutectic solvents (DESs) were used as alternatives to traditional chemical solvents, for the extraction of phytochemicals from grapevine shoots. Three levulinic acid-based DESs were tested for the first time, and their performance was compared to methanol (a standard chemical solvent) regarding the extraction of phenolic compounds from thirteen Vitis sp. shoots. Two extraction methods have been applied: ultrasound-assisted extraction and solid-liquid extraction. A total of eleven polyphenols which belongs to four families (proanthocyanins, stilbenes, hydroxycinnamic acids, and flavonols) have been identified and quantified in the extracts. The statistical analysis shows that the levulinic acid-based DES systems are novel and important alternatives to chemical solvents due to favourable eco-friendly properties and remarkable extraction performance of polyphenols. On the other hand, the ultrasound-assisted extraction technique has significantly increased the extraction rate in comparison to the solid-liquid extraction method with p-values lower than 0.05 for most compounds. The genetic factor has been shown to play an important role in the content of extracted polyphenols, being V. riparia pubescente the one that presented the highest concentrations of extracted polyphenols. Finally, the polyphenol-enriched extracts have proven important properties such as antioxidant activity and significant delay in bacteria growth against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. It is important to note that, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that deep eutectic solvents have been used for the extraction of bioactive compounds from vine shoot residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Duarte
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Ed. 8, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - María José Aliaño-González
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Ed. 8, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal; Departamento de Química Analítica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510, Cadiz, Spain.
| | - Emma Cantos-Villar
- IFAPA Rancho de la Merced, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Water and Rural Development, Junta de Andalucía, Cañada de la Loba, Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, 11471, Spain
| | - Leonor Faleiro
- Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, C8, Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal; Algarve Biomedical Center, Research Institute, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal; Champalimaud Research Program, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, 1400-038, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Anabela Romano
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Ed. 8, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Bruno Medronho
- MED-Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE - Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Campus de Gambelas, Universidade do Algarve, Ed. 8, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal; FSCN-Fibre Science and Communication Network Research Center, Surface and Colloid Engineering, Mid Sweden University, SE-851 70, Sundsvall, Sweden
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Kutlu N, Kamiloğlu A, Abca TE, Yilmaz Ö. Ultrasound-assisted deep eutectic solvent extraction of bioactive compounds from persimmon calyx. J Food Sci 2024; 89:294-305. [PMID: 38010748 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.16849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the ultrasound-assisted extraction of bioactive compounds from persimmon (Diospyros kaki) calyx by deep eutectic solvents (DES) with different molar ratios. For this reason, the prepared DES extracts' total phenolic-flavonoid compounds and antioxidant activities (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrilhydrazyl radical scavenging activity [DPPH•], Cupric Reducing Antioxidant Capacity (CUPRAC), and ferric reducing antioxidant power [FRAP]) were investigated as a result of the experimental design and optimization study conducted for this purpose. A sonication time of 20 min was determined as the optimal condition. Under these conditions, a molar ratio of 1.9:1 (lactic acid:choline chloride) and a water ratio of 70% provided the highest phenolic/flavonoid compounds and antioxidative activity. Correlations among water ratio, molar ratio, and sonication time were determined using principal component analysis (PCA). In conditions where total flavonoid compound, FRAP, and DPPH• are high due to PCA, it can be concluded that the sonication time is at high level; on the contrary, the water and molar ratios are at low level. In conclusion, ultrasound-assisted extraction using DES proved effective in persimmon calyx. Therefore, it can be recommended to use these environmentally friendly green solvents as an alternative to organic solvents in preparing extracts in various fields. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study shows the effectiveness of the ultrasound-assisted green extraction method using persimmon calyx specified as waste. These findings are compelling in the food industry in terms of consumers being now aware of green technology and the discovery that calyx is a good source of bioactive compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naciye Kutlu
- Department of Food Processing, Bayburt University, Bayburt, Turkiye
| | - Aybike Kamiloğlu
- Department of Food Engineering, Bayburt University, Bayburt, Turkiye
| | - Tuğba Elbir Abca
- Department of Food Engineering, Bayburt University, Bayburt, Turkiye
| | - Özlem Yilmaz
- Department of Hotel, Restaurant and Catering, Bayburt University, Bayburt, Turkiye
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Umsza-Guez MA, Vázquez-Espinosa M, Chinchilla N, Aliaño-González MJ, Oliveira de Souza C, Ayena K, Fernández Barbero G, Palma M, Carrera C. Enhancing Anthocyanin Extraction from Wine Lees: A Comprehensive Ultrasound-Assisted Optimization Study. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:2074. [PMID: 38136194 PMCID: PMC10740476 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12122074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Wine lees, an important by-product of the wine industry, pose a major environmental problem due to the enormous quantities of solid-liquid waste that are discarded annually without defined applications. In this study, the optimization of a method based on a Box-Behnken design with surface response has been carried out to obtain extracts with high anthocyanin content and potent antioxidant activity. Six variables have been considered: %EtOH, temperature, amplitude, cycle, pH, and ratio. The developed method exhibited important repeatability properties and intermediate precision, with less than 5% CV being achieved. Furthermore, these novel methods were successfully applied to diverse wine lees samples sourced from Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah varieties (Vitis vinifera), resulting in extracts enriched with significant anthocyanin content and noteworthy antioxidant activity. Additionally, this study evaluated the influence of grape variety, fermentation type (alcoholic or malolactic), and sample treatment on anthocyanin content and antioxidant activity, providing valuable insights for further research and application in various sectors. The potential applications of these high-quality extracts extend beyond the winemaking industry, holding promise for fields like medicine, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceuticals, thus promoting a circular economy and mitigating environmental contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo A. Umsza-Guez
- Food Science Postgraduate Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador 40170-100, Bahia, Brazil; (M.A.U.-G.); (C.O.d.S.); (K.A.)
| | - Mercedes Vázquez-Espinosa
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Cadiz, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), Wine and Agrifood Research Institute (IVAGRO), 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (M.V.-E.); (G.F.B.); (M.P.); (C.C.)
| | - Nuria Chinchilla
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Cadiz, Institute of Biomolecules (INBIO), 11510 Puerto Real, Spain;
| | - María José Aliaño-González
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Cadiz, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), Wine and Agrifood Research Institute (IVAGRO), 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (M.V.-E.); (G.F.B.); (M.P.); (C.C.)
- MED–Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Campus de Gambelas, Ed. 8, Universidade do Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Carolina Oliveira de Souza
- Food Science Postgraduate Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador 40170-100, Bahia, Brazil; (M.A.U.-G.); (C.O.d.S.); (K.A.)
| | - Kodjovi Ayena
- Food Science Postgraduate Program, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador 40170-100, Bahia, Brazil; (M.A.U.-G.); (C.O.d.S.); (K.A.)
| | - Gerardo Fernández Barbero
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Cadiz, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), Wine and Agrifood Research Institute (IVAGRO), 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (M.V.-E.); (G.F.B.); (M.P.); (C.C.)
| | - Miguel Palma
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Cadiz, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), Wine and Agrifood Research Institute (IVAGRO), 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (M.V.-E.); (G.F.B.); (M.P.); (C.C.)
| | - Ceferino Carrera
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Cadiz, Agrifood Campus of International Excellence (ceiA3), Wine and Agrifood Research Institute (IVAGRO), 11510 Puerto Real, Spain; (M.V.-E.); (G.F.B.); (M.P.); (C.C.)
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Siddiqui SA, Ali Redha A, Salauddin M, Harahap IA, Rupasinghe HPV. Factors Affecting the Extraction of (Poly)Phenols from Natural Resources Using Deep Eutectic Solvents Combined with Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2023:1-22. [PMID: 37850880 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2023.2266846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2023]
Abstract
Replacing conventional solvents with deep eutectic solvents (DES) has shown promising effects on the extraction yield of (poly)phenols. DES can be combined with ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) to further increase the extraction efficiency of (poly)phenols from natural resources compared to conventional methods. This review discusses the factors associated with DES (composition, solvent-to-sample ratio, extraction duration, and temperature) and UAE (ultrasound frequency, power, intensity, and duty cycle) methods that influence the extraction of (poly)phenols and informs future improvements required in the optimization of the extraction process. For the optimum (poly)phenol extraction from natural resources, the following parameters shall be considered: ultrasound frequency should be in the range of 20-50 kHz, ultrasound intensity in the range of 60-120 W/cm2, ultrasound duty cycle in the range of 40-80%, ultrasound duration for 10-30 minutes, and ultrasound temperature for 25-50 °C. Among the reported DES systems, choline chloride with glycerol or lactic acid, with a solvent-to-sample mass ratio of 10-30:1 shown to be effective. The solvent composition and solvent-to-sample mass ratio should be selected according to the target compound and the source material. However, the high viscosity of DES is among the major limitations. Optimizing these factors can help to increase the yield of extracted (poly)phenols and their applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahida Anusha Siddiqui
- Campus Straubing for Biotechnology and Sustainability, Technical University of Munich, Straubing, Germany
- German Institute of Food Technologies (DIL e.V.), Quakenbrück, Germany
| | - Ali Ali Redha
- The Department of Public Health and Sport Sciences, University of Exeter Medical School, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
- Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Molla Salauddin
- Department of Food Processing Technology, Mir Madan Mohanlal Government Polytechnic, West Bengal State Council of Technical Education, Kolkata, India
| | - Iskandar Azmy Harahap
- Research Organization for Health, National Research and Innovation Agency, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - H P Vasantha Rupasinghe
- Department of Plant, Food, and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Dalhousie University, Truro, Nova Scotia, Canada
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Duarte H, Carrera C, Aliaño-González MJ, Gutiérrez-Escobar R, Jiménez-Hierro MJ, Palma M, Galego L, Romano A, Medronho B. On the Valorization of Arbutus unedo L. Pomace: Polyphenol Extraction and Development of Novel Functional Cookies. Foods 2023; 12:3707. [PMID: 37835361 PMCID: PMC10572809 DOI: 10.3390/foods12193707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The fruits of Arbutus unedo L. have a crimson colour and are enriched with remarkable concentrations of bioactive compounds such as anthocyanins and polyphenols. These fruits are commonly used in the production of a Portuguese Protected Geographical Indication distillate called "Aguardente de Medronho". During this process, a solid pomace is generated and presently discarded without valuable applications. In this work, two strategies have been developed for the valorisation of A. unedo pomace. The first approach considers the extraction of polyphenols from this by-product through the optimization of an ultrasound-assisted method using a Box-Behnken design coupled with response surface methodology. The results indicate that the temperature and the percentage of methanol, along with their interaction, significantly influence the total concentration of polyphenols and the antioxidant activity of the extracts obtained. The optimal conditions identified consider the extraction of 0.5 g of sample with 20 mL of a solvent containing 74% MeOH (aq), at a pH of 4.8, maintained at 70 °C for 15 min. On the other hand, the second valorisation strategy considered the use of A. unedo pomace in the development of functional cookies. The incorporation of 15-20% pomace in the cookie formulation was well-received by consumers. This incorporation results in an intake of ca. 6.55 mg of polyphenols per gram of cookie consumed, accompanied by an antioxidant activity of 4.54 mg Trolox equivalents per gram of cookie consumed. Overall, these results encourage the employment of A. unedo pomace either as a reliable source of extracts enriched in polyphenols or as a nutraceutical active ingredient in functional cookies, thereby positively impacting human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hugo Duarte
- MED—Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, CHANGE—Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Ed. 8, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (H.D.); (L.G.); (A.R.); (B.M.)
| | - Ceferino Carrera
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510 Cadiz, Spain (M.P.)
| | - María José Aliaño-González
- MED—Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, CHANGE—Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Ed. 8, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (H.D.); (L.G.); (A.R.); (B.M.)
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510 Cadiz, Spain (M.P.)
| | - Rocío Gutiérrez-Escobar
- IFAPA Rancho de la Merced, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Water and Rural Development, Junta de Andalucía, Cañada de la Loba, 11471 Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Spain; (R.G.-E.); (M.J.J.-H.)
| | - María Jesús Jiménez-Hierro
- IFAPA Rancho de la Merced, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Water and Rural Development, Junta de Andalucía, Cañada de la Loba, 11471 Jerez de la Frontera, Cádiz, Spain; (R.G.-E.); (M.J.J.-H.)
| | - Miguel Palma
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510 Cadiz, Spain (M.P.)
| | - Ludovina Galego
- MED—Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, CHANGE—Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Ed. 8, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (H.D.); (L.G.); (A.R.); (B.M.)
- Instituto Superior de Engenharia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus da Penha, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Anabela Romano
- MED—Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, CHANGE—Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Ed. 8, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (H.D.); (L.G.); (A.R.); (B.M.)
| | - Bruno Medronho
- MED—Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development, CHANGE—Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, Ed. 8, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal; (H.D.); (L.G.); (A.R.); (B.M.)
- FSCN—Fibre Science and Communication Network Research Center, Surface and Colloid Engineering Deparment, Mid Sweden University, SE-851 70 Sundsvall, Sweden
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Geana EI, Ciucure CT, Tamaian R, Marinas IC, Gaboreanu DM, Stan M, Chitescu CL. Antioxidant and Wound Healing Bioactive Potential of Extracts Obtained from Bark and Needles of Softwood Species. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1383. [PMID: 37507922 PMCID: PMC10376860 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12071383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Interest in the extraction of phytochemical bioactive compounds, especially polyphenols from biomass, has recently increased due to their valuable biological potential as natural sources of antioxidants, which could be used in a wide range of applications, from foods and pharmaceuticals to green polymers and bio-based materials. The present research study aimed to provide a comprehensive chemical characterization of the phytochemical composition of forest biomass (bark and needles) of softwood species (Picea abies L., H. Karst., and Abies alba Mill.) and to investigate their in vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activities to assess their potential in treating and healing infected chronic wounds. The DPPH radical-scavenging method and P-LD were used for a mechanistic explanation of the biomolecular effects of the investigated bioactive compounds. (+)-Catechin, epicatechin, rutin, myricetin, 4 hydroxybenzoic and p-cumaric acids, kaempherol, and apigenin were the main quantified polyphenols in coniferous biomass (in quantities around 100 µg/g). Also, numerous phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, terpenes, lignans, secoiridoids, and indanes with antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antihemolytic, and anti-carcinogenic potential were identified. The Abies alba needle extract was more toxic to microbial strains than the eukaryotic cells that provide its active wound healing principles. In this context, developing industrial upscaling strategies is imperative for the long-term success of biorefineries and incorporating them as part of a circular bio-economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeta-Irina Geana
- National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenics and Isotopic Technologies, 240050 Ramnicu Valcea, Romania;
| | - Corina Teodora Ciucure
- National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenics and Isotopic Technologies, 240050 Ramnicu Valcea, Romania;
| | - Radu Tamaian
- National Research and Development Institute for Cryogenics and Isotopic Technologies, 240050 Ramnicu Valcea, Romania;
| | - Ioana Cristina Marinas
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, Research Institute of the University of Bucharest-ICUB, 050567 Bucharest, Romania; (D.M.G.); (M.S.)
| | - Diana Mădălina Gaboreanu
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, Research Institute of the University of Bucharest-ICUB, 050567 Bucharest, Romania; (D.M.G.); (M.S.)
- National Institute of Research and Development for Biological Sciences, 060031 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Miruna Stan
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, Research Institute of the University of Bucharest-ICUB, 050567 Bucharest, Romania; (D.M.G.); (M.S.)
| | - Carmen Lidia Chitescu
- Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, “Dunarea de Jos” University of Galati, 800008 Galati, Romania;
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