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Santamaría E, Lizarreta N, Vílchez S, González C, Maestro A. Formation of Microcapsules of Pullulan by Emulsion Template Mechanism: Evaluation as Vitamin C Delivery Systems. Gels 2024; 10:355. [PMID: 38920902 PMCID: PMC11202853 DOI: 10.3390/gels10060355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Pullulan is a polysaccharide that has attracted the attention of scientists in recent times as a former of edible films. On the other hand, its use for the preparation of hydrogels needs more study, as well as the formation of pullulan microcapsules as active ingredient release systems for the food industry. Due to the slow gelation kinetics of pullulan with sodium trimetaphosphate (STMP), capsules cannot be formed through the conventional method of dropping into a solution of the gelling agent, as with other polysaccharides, since the pullulan chains migrate to the medium before the capsules can form by gelation. Pullulan microcapsules have been obtained by using inverse water-in-oil emulsions as templates. The emulsion that acts as a template has been characterized by monitoring its stability and by optical microscopy, and the size of the emulsion droplets has been correlated with the size of the microcapsules obtained, demonstrating that it is a good technique for their production. Although some flocs of droplets form, these remain dispersed during the gelation process and two capsule size distributions are obtained: those of the non-flocculated droplets and the flocculated droplets. The microcapsules have been evaluated as vitamin C release systems, showing zero-order release kinetics for acidic pH and Fickian mechanism for neutral pH. On the other hand, the microcapsules offer good protection of vitamin C against oxidation during an evaluation period of 14 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Santamaría
- Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry, Universitat de Barcelona, Marti i Franques, 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, 08921 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain
| | - Naroa Lizarreta
- Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry, Universitat de Barcelona, Marti i Franques, 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Susana Vílchez
- Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IQAC-CSIC) and Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carme González
- Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry, Universitat de Barcelona, Marti i Franques, 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, 08921 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain
| | - Alicia Maestro
- Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry, Universitat de Barcelona, Marti i Franques, 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, 08921 Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Spain
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Nasser R, Ibrahim E, Fouad H, Ahmad F, Li W, Zhou Q, Yu T, Chidwala N, Mo J. Termiticidal, biochemical, and morpho-histological effects of botanical based nanoemulsion against a subterranean termite, Odontotermes Formosanus Shiraki. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 14:1292272. [PMID: 38259939 PMCID: PMC10800573 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1292272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
Recently, the use of nanopesticides has shown significant efficacy in the control of many pests. However, the effect of nanopesticides, especially nanoemulsions, on suppressing termites, Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki, 1909) (O. formosanus), has not been studied yet. Therefore, this study aimed to produce nanoemulsions of the essential oils of eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus Labill; E-EO) and nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt; N-EO) to suppress O. formosanus. The analysis of eucalyptus nanoemulsion (E-NE) and nutmeg nanoemulsion (N-NE) was confirmed by using UV-Vis, dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy dispersive spectroscopy. In addition, chemical analysis by Gas Chromatography with a mass spectrometer (GC-MS) exhibited the major constituents of E-NE and N-NE. The principal chemical components of E-NE included D-limonene, eucalyptol, 1,5-cyclooctadiene,3,4-dimethyl, benzene, and 1-methyl-3-(1 methylethyl)-, while the main constituents in N-NE were cyclohexane,1-methylene-4-(1 methylethenyl)-, eucalyptol, and L-. alpha. -terpineol. The mortality rates were 100% and 99.53%, respectively, after 24 hours of treatment with a concentration of 140 mg/mL, compared to 23.43% and 43.55%, respectively, from E-EO and N-EO treatment. These results refer to the essential oils' nanoemulsion as far more effective than the essential oils themselves. Furthermore, the effects of E-NE and N-NE on detoxification enzymes such as acetylcholinesterase, carboxylesterase, acid and alkaline phosphatase were investigated, as well as total protein concentrations, and the results have been found to be significantly increasing or decreasing in comparison with control. Besides, histological and morphological alterations found post exposure to E-NE and N-NE were shown. Overall, the results from this study clearly indicate that the nanopesticide-formulated nanoemulsions may have great potential to be used as novel, environmentally safe insecticides for controlling O. formosanus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raghda Nasser
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Zoology and Entomology Department, Faculty of Science, Minia University, El-Minia, Egypt
| | - Ezzeldin Ibrahim
- State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology and Breeding, Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Department of Vegetable Diseases Research, Plant Pathology Research Institute, Agriculture Research Centre, Giza, Egypt
| | - Hatem Fouad
- Department of Field Crop Pests, Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Farhan Ahmad
- Entomology Section, Central Cotton Research Institute, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Wuhan Li
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qihuan Zhou
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ting Yu
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Nooney Chidwala
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jianchu Mo
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Lab of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insect Pests, Key Laboratory of Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Insect Sciences, College of Agricultural and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Santamaría E, Maestro A, González C. Use of Double Gelled Microspheres to Improve Release Control of Cinnamon-Loaded Nanoemulsions. Molecules 2023; 29:158. [PMID: 38202745 PMCID: PMC10780570 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29010158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The use of nanoemulsions as encapsulation systems for active ingredients, such as cinnamon oil, has been studied. A surfactant based on polyoxyethylene glycerol esters from coconut/palm kernel oil has been used. The nanoemulsions were obtained by the two most commonly low-energy emulsification methods, the composition inversion phase (PIC) and the temperature inversion phase (PIT) methods. Nanoemulsions were successfully obtained by both methods, with very small droplet sizes (5-14 nm) in both cases, but a greater stability was observed when the PIT method was used. Nanoemulsions were encapsulated by external gelation using two different polysaccharides, alginate or chitosan, dissolved in the continuous phase of the nanoemulsion. Then, the nanoemulsion was dropped into a bath with a gelling agent. To improve the release control of cinnamon oil and avoid the burst effect, beads prepared with one of the polysaccharides were coated with the second polysaccharide and then gelled again. Double gelled beads were successfully obtained, the core with chitosan and the outer layer (shell) with alginate. SEM images showed the morphology of the single beads presenting high porosity. When the beads were coated, the porosity decreased because the second polysaccharide molecules covered the pre-existing pores. The smoother surface was obtained when this second layer was, in turn, gelled. The release patterns at pH = 2 and pH = 7 were studied. It was observed that the double gelled bead provided a more gradual release, but maintained approximately the same amount of final released oil. The release patterns were fitted to the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. The fitting parameters reflected the effect of the different coating layers, correlating with different diffusion mechanisms according to the bead core and shell materials.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alicia Maestro
- Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès, 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (E.S.); (C.G.)
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Santamaría E, Anjinho de Barros L, González C, Maestro A. Rheological Study of the Formation of Pullulan Hydrogels and Their Use as Carvacrol-Loaded Nanoemulsion Delivery Systems. Gels 2023; 9:644. [PMID: 37623099 PMCID: PMC10453457 DOI: 10.3390/gels9080644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrogels have been extensively studied as delivery systems for lipophilic compounds. Pullulan hydrogels were prepared, and their gelation kinetics were studied over time. Pullulan exhibited a relatively slow gelling reaction in basic medium (KOH) using trisodium metaphosphate (STMP) as a cross-linking agent, so capsules cannot be obtained by dripping as easily as in the case of alginate and chitosan. The kinetics of pullulan gelation were studied through rheological analysis over time. An optimal [Pullulan]/[KOH] ratio was found for a fixed [Pullulan]/[STMP] ratio. For this given relationship, gelling time measurements indicated that when the concentration of pullulan increased, the gelation time decreased from 60 min for 6% w/w pullulan to 10 min for 10% w/w. After the gel point, a hardening of the hydrogel was observed over the next 5 h. The formed hydrogels presented high degrees of swelling (up to 1800%). Freeze-dried gels were capable of being rehydrated, obtaining gels with rheological characteristics and visual appearance similar to fresh gels, which makes them ideal to be freeze-dried for storage and rehydrated when needed. The behavior of the hydrogels obtained as active ingredient release systems was studied. In this case, the chosen molecule was carvacrol (the main component of oregano oil). As carvacrol is hydrophobic, it was incorporated into the droplets of an oil-in-water nanoemulsion, and the nanoemulsion was incorporated into the hydrogel. The release of the oil was studied at different pHs. It was observed that as the pH increased (from pH 2 to pH 7), the released amount of carvacrol for the gel with pullulan 10% w/w reached 100%; for the other cases, the cumulative release amount was lower. It was attributed to two opposite phenomena in the porous structure of the hydrogel, where more porosity implied a faster release of carvacrol but also a higher degree of swelling that promoted a higher entry of water flow in the opposite direction. This flow of water prevented the active principle from spreading to the release medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Santamaría
- Chemical Engineering and Analytical Chemistry Department, Faculty of Chemistry, Universitat de Barcelona Marti i Franques, 1, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (L.A.d.B.); (C.G.); (A.M.)
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