Study of Fractal Dimensions of Microcrystalline Cellulose Obtained by the Spray-Drying Method

Influence of the Fractal Distribution of Particle Size on the Critical State Characteristics of Calcareous Sand

To study the influence of the fractal distribution of particle size on the critical state characteristics of calcareous sand, a type of calcareous sand from a certain reef of the South China Sea was used in this study. For comparison, standard quartz sand was also used. A series of drained shear tests on the two sands were then conducted to investigate their critical state characteristics. It was demonstrated that the fractal dimension is suitable for characterizing the particle size distribution (PSD) of calcareous sand with different fine sand content. The critical state equation of sand proposed by Li and Wang (1998) is suitable for fitting the critical state line of calcareous sand. In the plane of deviatoric stress versus the effective confining pressure (q–p′ plane) and the plane of void ratio versus (p′/pa)α, the critical state lines of calcareous sand are always above those of quartz sand. The critical state lines of calcareous sand with different fractal dimensions in the q–p′ plane are unique. However, in the e–(p′/pa)α plane, the critical state lines appear to rotate anticlockwise as the fractal dimension increases. In addition, there is an “intersection” in the e–(p′/pa)α plane. Considering the influence of the fractal distribution of particle size, an expression for the critical state line of calcareous sand in the e–(p′/pa)α plane was proposed. The related constitutive model was also revised, where a complete set of model parameters suitable for modeling calcareous sand was provided.

An update on microcrystalline cellulose in direct compression: Functionality, critical material attributes, and co-processed excipients

Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) is one of the most popular cellulose derivatives in the pharmaceutical industry. Thanks to its outstanding tabletability, MCC is generally included in direct compression (DC) tablet formulations containing poor-tabletability active pharmaceutical ingredients. Nowadays, numerous grades of MCC from various brands are accessible for pharmaceutical manufacturers, leading to variability in MCC properties. Hence, it seems to be worthy and urgent to evaluate the influences of MCC variability on tablet quality and to identify critical material attributes (CMAs) based on the idea of Quality by Control. Besides, MCC-based co-processed excipients can effectively combine the functions of the filler, binder, disintegrant, lubricant, glidant, or flavor, and thus have drawn extensive interest. In this review, we focused specifically on the recent advances and development of MCC on DC tableting, including the functions in tablet formulations, potential CMAs, and MCC-based co-possessed excipients, therefore providing a reference for further studies.

A New Perspective of Multiple Roller Compaction of Microcrystalline Cellulose for Overcoming Re-Compression Drawbacks in Tableting Processing

In this paper, new scientific insights in relation to the re-compaction of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC; Avicel®® PH-101) under specific compaction conditions are reported. MCC was subjected to multiple compaction cycles (1st, 2nd, and 3rd) under high compaction pressures, up to 20,000 kPa, using a roller compactor of 100 kg/h capacity. Initially, granules from the 1st and 2nd compaction cycles produced tablets with lower crushing strength compared to those made from the original non-compacted MCC. Tablet weakness was found to be correlated to the generation of a higher intra-granular pore size (diameter) and hence higher tablet porosity compared to that of the original MCC particles. Using Kawakita and Heckel compression analyses, it is suggested that such behavior is attributed to the formation of harder granules of re-compressed powder with a larger diameter than non-compacted MCC particles. Moreover, these granules resulted in a reduction in powder bed volume after the powders were subjected to the 1st and 2nd compaction cycles. Surprisingly, granules resulting from the 3rd compaction cycle produced tablets displaying a higher crushing force than non-compacted MCC. Results from compression analysis indicated a reduction in both the intra-granular pore size (diameter) and in tablet porosity of Avicel PH-101-3rd compaction cycle compared to that of the original non-compacted MCC. It is concluded that intense compression causes shedding of one or more layer from MCC fibers exposing new surfaces with strong binding ability. The foregoing results infer that intensified roller compaction can be employed to improve MCC powder compactibility without any deleterious effects on compact strength.

Fractal Dimensions of Cell Wall in Growing Cotton Fibers

In this research, fractal properties of a cell wall in growing cotton fibers were studied. It was found that dependences of specific pore volume (P) and apparent density (ρ) on the scale factor, F = H/h, can be expressed by power-law equations: P = Po F(Dv−E) and ρ = ρo F(E−Dρ), where h is minimum thickness of the microfibrilar network in the primary cell wall, H is total thickness of cell wall in growing cotton, Dv = 2.556 and Dρ = 2.988 are fractal dimensions. From the obtained results it follows that microfibrilar network of the primary cell wall in immature fibers is loose and disordered, and therefore it has an increased pore volume (Po = 0.037 cm3/g) and low density (ρo = 1.47 g/cm3). With enhance days post anthesis of growing cotton fibers, the wall thickness and density increase, while the pore volume decreases, until dense structure of completely mature fibers is formed with maximum density (1.54 g/cm3) and minimum pore volume (0.006 cm3/g). The fractal dimension for specific pore volume, Dv = 2.556, evidences the mixed surface-volume sorption mechanism of sorbate vapor in the pores. On the other hand, the fractal dimension for apparent density, Dρ = 2.988, is very close to Euclidean volume dimension, E = 3, for the three-dimensional space.