QbD Supported Optimization of the Alginate-Chitosan Nanoparticles of Simvastatin in Enhancing the Anti-Proliferative Activity against Tongue Carcinoma

Enhancing flowability of lamivudine through quasi-emulsion solvent-diffusion (QESD) crystallization: A comprehensive study on surfactant impact, particle morphology by QbD concepts and tablet compression challenges

Lamivudine (LMD), an enantiomer of 2'-deoxy-3'-thiacytidine, plays a crucial role in combatting HIV-1 and managing hepatitis B virus infections. Despite its effectiveness, challenges arise from its difficult flowability and tendency to agglomerate during storage, necessitating a granulation step before tablet compression, as direct compression has proven ineffective. This study aimed to optimize Lamivudine spherical agglomerates using response surface methodology, delving into the intricate relationship between design factors (concentration of tween, span, and acetone) and experimental outcomes (yield and particle size) through central composite design. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed for optimization, with the Quasi-emulsion solvent-diffusion (QESD) crystallization technique utilized for the checkpoint batch. This technique, involving a single solvent and antisolvent with surfactants, showcased remarkable enhancements in flowability and reduced storage agglomeration. The impact of various surfactants [Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose (HPMC), polysorbate 80, and sorbitane monooleate] on particle morphology, flowability, and storage agglomeration during crystallization was thoroughly assessed. While achieving direct compression into tablets, the porous structure of LMD agglomerates presented challenges in tablet press production speeds, prompting adjustments such as reducing punch speed or implementing a precompression step. Positive outcomes were realized for disintegration and in vitro drug release in comparison to direct compression and wet granulation methods. In conclusion, the QESD crystallization technique successfully yielded hollow, spherical LMD agglomerates with enhanced properties, representing a significant milestone in pharmaceutical formulation.

Chitosan Alginate Nanoparticles of Protein Hydrolysate from Acheta domesticus with Enhanced Stability for Skin Delivery

This study aimed to develop chitosan alginate nanoparticles (CANPs) for enhanced stability for dermal delivery of protein hydrolysate from Acheta domesticus (PH). CANPs, developed using ionotropic pre-gelation followed by the polyelectrolyte complex technique, were characterized for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential. After the incorporation of PH into CANPs, a comprehensive assessment included encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity, morphology, chemical analyses, physical and chemical stability, irritation potential, release profile, skin permeation, and skin retention. The most optimal CANPs, comprising 0.6 mg/mL sodium alginate, 1.8 mg/mL calcium chloride, and 0.1 mg/mL chitosan, exhibited the smallest particle size (309 ± 0 nm), the narrowest PDI (0.39 ± 0.01), and pronounced negative zeta potential (-26.0 ± 0.9 mV), along with an encapsulation efficiency of 56 ± 2%, loading capacity of 2.4 ± 0.1%, release of 40 ± 2% after 48 h, and the highest skin retention of 12 ± 1%. The CANPs induced no irritation and effectively enhanced the stability of PH from 44 ± 5% of PH remaining in a solution to 74 ± 4% after three-month storage. Therefore, the findings revealed the considerable potential of CANPs in improving PH stability and skin delivery, with promising applications in cosmetics and related fields.

Enhancement of antifungal activity and transdermal delivery of 5-flucytosine via tailored spanlastic nanovesicles: statistical optimization, in-vitro characterization, and in-vivo biodistribution study

Aim and background: This current study aimed to load 5-flucytosine (5-FCY) into spanlastic nanovesicles (SPLNs) to make the drug more efficient as an antifungal and also to load the 5-FCY into a hydrogel that would allow for enhanced transdermal permeation and improved patient compliance. Methods: The preparation of 5-FCY-SPLNs was optimized by using a central composite design that considered Span 60 (X1) and the edge activator Tween 80 (X2) as process variables in achieving the desired particle size and entrapment efficiency. A formulation containing 295.79 mg of Span 60 and 120.00 mg of Tween 80 was found to meet the prerequisites of the desirability method. The optimized 5-FCY-SPLN formulation was further formulated into a spanlastics gel (SPG) so that the 5-FCY-SPLNs could be delivered topically and characterized in terms of various parameters. Results: As required, the SPG had the desired elasticity, which can be credited to the physical characteristics of SPLNs. An ex-vivo permeation study showed that the greatest amount of 5-FCY penetrated per unit area (Q) (mg/cm2) over time and the average flux (J) (mg/cm2/h) was at the end of 24 h. Drug release studies showed that the drug continued to be released until the end of 24 h and that the pattern was correlated with an ex-vivo permeation and distribution study. The biodistribution study showed that the 99mTc-labeled SFG that permeated the skin had a steadier release pattern, a longer duration of circulation with pulsatile behavior in the blood, and higher levels in the bloodstream than the oral 99mTc-SPNLs. Therefore, a 5-FCY transdermal hydrogel could possibly be a long-acting formula for maintenance treatment that could be given in smaller doses and less often than the oral formula.

Application of the Quality by Design Concept (QbD) in the Development of Hydrogel-Based Drug Delivery Systems

Hydrogel-based drug delivery systems are of interest to researchers for many reasons, such as biocompatibility, high diversity, and the possibility of administration from different routes. Despite these advantages, there are challenges, such as controlling the drug release rate and their mechanical properties during the manufacturing of these systems. For this reason, there is a need for the production and development of such drug delivery systems with a scientific strategy. For this reason, the quality by design (QbD) approach is used for the development of drug delivery systems. This approach, by identifying the most effective factors in the manufacturing of pharmaceutical products and controlling them, results in a product with the desired quality with the least number of errors. In this review article, an attempt is made to discuss the application and method of applying this approach in the development of hydrogel-based drug delivery systems. So that for the development and production of these systems, according to the type of drug delivery system, what target characteristics should be considered (QTPP) and what factors, such as material properties (CMA) or process parameters (CPP), should be taken into account to reach the critical quality attributes of the product (CQA).

Development and In Vitro Evaluation of Crizotinib-Loaded Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles Using Box-Behnken Design in Non-small Cell Lung Cancer

The goal of the study was to produce, optimize, characterize, and compare crizotinib-loaded lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles (CL-LPHNPs), representing a novel contribution to the existing literature, and to determine their anticancer activity in non-small cell lung cancer cells (NSCLC). Box-Behnken design was used to investigate the effect of three independent variables: polymer amount (X1), soy phosphatidylcholine (X2), and DSPE-PEG (X3), on three responses: particle size (Y1), polydispersity index (Y2), and zeta potential (Y3). Different parameters were evaluated on the optimized LPHNP formulations such as encapsulation efficiency, drug release study, transmission electron microscopy (TEM) image analysis, and in vitro cell evaluations. The mean particle size of the optimized formulation is between 120 and 220 nm with a PDI< 0.2 and a zeta potential of -10 to -15 mV. The encapsulation efficiency values of crizotinib-loaded PLGA-LPHNPs (CL-PLGA-LPHNPs) and crizotinib-loaded PCL-LPHNPs (CL-PCL-LPHNPs) were 79.25±0.07% and 70.93±1.81%, respectively. Drug release study of CL-PLGA-LPHNPs and CL-PCL-LPHNPs showed a controlled and sustained release pattern as a result of core-shell type. Additionally, after 48 h, CL-PLGA-LPHNPs and CL-PCL-LPHNPs significantly reduced the viability of NCI-H2228 cells compared to free crizotinib. Moreover, CL-PLGA-LPHNPs and CL-PCL-LPHNPs exhibited a significant decrease in RAS, RAF, MEK, and ERK gene/protein expression levels after 48-h incubation. In conclusion, this pioneering study introduces lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles containing crizotinib as a novel treatment approach, uniting the advantages of a polymeric core and a lipid shell. The successful formulation optimization using Box-Behnken design yielded nanoparticles with adjustable size, remarkable stability, high drug loading, and a customizable drug release profile. Extensive investigations of key parameters, including particle size, PDI, ZP, TEM analysis, drug release, EE%, and in vitro evaluations, validate the potential of these nanoparticles. Moreover, the examination of two different polymers, PLGA and PCL, highlights their distinct impacts on nanoparticle performance. This research opens up new prospects for advanced therapeutic interventions with lipid-polymer hybrid nanoparticles.

QbD driven targeted pulmonary delivery of dexamethasone-loaded chitosan microspheres: Biodistribution and pharmacokinetic study

Inhaling drugs, on the other hand, is limited mainly by the natural mechanisms of the respiratory system, which push drug particles out of the lungs or make them inefficient once they are there. Because of this, many ways have been found to work around the problems with drug transport through the lungs. Researchers have made polymeric microparticles (MP) and nanoparticles as a possible way to get drugs into the lungs. They showed that the drug could be trapped in large amounts and retained in the lungs for a long time, with as little contact as possible with the bloodstream. MP were formulated in this study to get dexamethasone (DMC) into the pulmonary area. The Box-Behnken design optimized microspheres preparation to meet the pulmonary delivery prerequisites. Optimized formulation was figured out based on the desirability approach. The mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of the optimized formula (O-DMC-MP) was 8.46 ± 1.45 µm, and the fine particle fraction (FPF) was 77.69 ± 1.26%. This showed that it made suitable drug delivery system, which could make it possible for MP to settle deeply in the lung space after being breathed in. With the first burst of drug release, it was seen that drug release could last up to 16 h. Also, there was no clear sign that the optimized formulation was toxic to the alveoli basal epithelial cells in the lungs, as supported by cytotoxic studies in HUVEC, A549, and H1299 cell lines. Most importantly, loading DMC inside MP cuts the amount of drug into the bloodstream compared to plain DMC, as evident from biodistribution studies. Stability tests have shown that the product can stay the same over time at both the storage conditions. Using chitosan DMC-MP can be a better therapeutic formulation to treat acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).

Design and Evaluation of S-Protected Thiolated-Based Itopride Hydrochloride Polymeric Nanocrystals for Functional Dyspepsia: QbD-Driven Optimization, In Situ, In Vitro, and In Vivo Investigation

Mucoadhesive nanosized crystalline aggregates (NCs) can be delivered by the gastrointestinal, nasal, or pulmonary route to improve retention at particular sites. Itopride hydrochloride (ITH) was selected as a drug candidate due to its absorption from the upper gastrointestinal tract. For drug localization and target-specific actions, mucoadhesive polymers are essential. The current work aimed to use second-generation mucoadhesive polymers (i.e., thiolated polymers) to enhance mucoadhesive characteristics. An ITH-NC formulation was enhanced using response surface methodology. Concentrations of Tween 80 and Polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP K-30) were selected as independent variables that could optimize the formulation to obtain the desired entrapment efficacy and particle size/diameter. It was found that a formulation prepared using Tween 80 at a concentration of 2.55% and PVP K-30 at 2% could accomplish the goals for which an optimized formulation was needed. Either xanthan gum (XG) or thiolated xanthan gum (TXG) was added to the optimized formulation to determine how they affected the mucoadhesive properties of the formulation. Studies demonstrated that there was an initial burst release of ITH from the ITH/NC/XG and ITH/NC/TXG in the early hours and then a steady release for 24 h. As anticipated, the TXG formulation had a better mucin interaction, and this was needed to ensure that the drug was distributed to tissues that produce mucus. Finally, at the measured concentrations, the ITH/NC showed minimal cytotoxicity against lung cells, indicating that it may have potential for additional in vivo research. The enhanced bioavailability and mean residence time of the designed mucoadhesive NC formulations were confirmed by pharmacokinetic studies.

Optimization of process parameters for fabrication of electrospun nanofibers containing neomycin sulfate and Malva sylvestris extract for a better diabetic wound healing

Diabetes mellitus is one of the most concerning conditions, and its chronic consequences are almost always accompanied by infection, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Reducing excessive reactive oxygen species and the wound's inflammatory response is a necessary treatment during the acute inflammatory phase of diabetic wound healing. Malva sylvestris extract (MS) containing nanofibers containing neomycin sulfate (NS) were synthesized for this investigation, and their impact on the healing process of diabetic wounds was assessed. Using Design Expert, the electrospinning process for the fabrication of NS nanofibers (NS-NF) was adjusted for applied voltage (X₁), the distance between the needle's tip and the collector (X₂), and the feed rate (X₃) for attaining desired entrapment efficacy [EE] and average nanofiber diameter (ND). The optimal formulation can be prepared with 19.11 kV of voltage, 20 cm of distance, and a flow rate of 0.502 mL/h utilizing the desirability approach. All the selected parameters and responses have their impact on drug delivery from nanofibers. In addition, M. sylvestris extracts have been added into the optimal formulation [MS-NS-NF] and assessed for their surface morphology, tensile strength, water absorption potential, and in vitro drug release studies. The NS and MS delivery from MS-NS-NF has been extended for more than 60 h. M. sylvestris-loaded nanofibers demonstrated superior antibacterial activity compared to plain NS nanofibers. The scaffolds featured a broad aspect and a highly linked porous fibrous network structure. Histomorphometry study and the in vitro scratch assay demonstrate the formulation's efficacy in treating diabetic wound healing. The cells treated with MS-NS-NF in vivo demonstrated that wound dressings successfully reduced both acute and chronic inflammations. To improve the healing of diabetic wounds, MS-NS-NF may be regarded as an appropriate candidate for wound dressing.

Response Surface Methodology (RSM) Powered Formulation Development, Optimization and Evaluation of Thiolated Based Mucoadhesive Nanocrystals for Local Delivery of Simvastatin

In oral administration systems, mucoadhesive polymers are crucial for drug localization and target-specific activities. The current work focuses on the application of thiolated xanthan gum (TXG) to develop and characterize a novel mucoadhesive nanocrystal (NC) system of simvastatin (SIM). Preparation of SIM-NC was optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) coupled with statistical applications. The concentration of Pluronic F-127 and vacuum pressure were optimized by central composite design. Based on this desirable approach, the prerequisites of the optimum formulation can be achieved by a formulation having 92.568 mg of F-127 and 77.85 mbar vacuum pressure to result in EE of 88.8747% and PS of 0.137.835 nm. An optimized formulation was prepared with the above conditions along with xanthan gum (XG) and TXG and various parameters were evaluated. A formulation containing TXG showed 98.25% of SIM at the end of 96 h. Regarding the mucoadhesion potential evaluated by measuring zeta potential, TXG-SIM-NC shoed the maximum zeta potential of 16,455.8 ± 869 mV at the end of 6 h. The cell viability percentage of TXG-SIM-NC (52.54 ± 3.4% with concentration of 50 µg/mL) was less than the plain SIM, with XG-SIM-NC showing the highest cytotoxicity on HSC-3 cells. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies confirm the enhanced bioavailability of formulated mucoadhesive systems of SIM-NC, with TXG-SIM-NC exhibiting the maximum.

Structural Characterization and Optimization of a Miconazole Oral Gel

The development of semisolid formulations, gels in particular, has raised the attention of scientists more and more over the last decades. Because of their biocompatibility, hydrophilic nature, and capacity of absorbing large quantities of water, hydrogels are still one of the most promising pharmaceutical formulations in the pharmaceutical industry. The purpose of this study is to develop an optimal formulation capable of incorporating a water-poorly soluble active ingredient such as miconazole used in the treatment of fungal infections with Candida albicans and Candida parapsilosis. A D-optimal design was applied to study the relationship between the formulation parameter and the gel characteristics. The independent parameters used in this study were the Carbopol 940 concentration (the polymer used to obtain the gel matrix), the sodium hydroxide amount, and the presence/absence of miconazole. Ten different dependent parameters (Y1-Y10) were evaluated (penetrometry, spreadability, viscosity, and tangential tension at 1 and 11 levels of speed whilst destructuring and during the reorganization of the gel matrix). The consistency of the gels ranged from 23.2 mm (GO2) to 29.6 mm (GM5). The least spreadable gel was GO7 (1384 mm²), whilst the gel that presented the best spreadability was GO1 (3525 mm²). The viscosity and the tangential stress at the selected levels (1 and 11) varied due to the different compositions of the proposed gels. The gels were also tested for drug content and antifungal activity. All determinations had satisfying results; the drug content was within limits accepted by Ph. Eur. 10 and all formulations containing miconazole exhibited antifungal activity. An optimal formulation with miconazole was attained, consisting of 0.84% Carbopol 940 and 0.32% sodium hydroxide.

Enhancement of Anti-Tumoral Properties of Paclitaxel Nano-Crystals by Conjugation of Folic Acid to Pluronic F127: Formulation Optimization, In Vitro and In Vivo Study

A brand-new nano-crystal (NC) version of the hydrophobic drug Paclitaxel (PT) were formulated for cancer treatment. A stable NC formulation for the administration of PT was created using the triblock co-polymer Pluronic F127. To achieve maximum entrapment effectiveness and minimal particle size, the formulation was improved using the central composite design by considering agitation speed and vacuum pressure at five levels (coded as +1.414, +1, 0, -1, and -1.414). According to the Design Expert software's predictions, 13 runs were created and evaluated for the chosen responses. The formulation prepared with an agitation speed of 1260 RPM and a vacuum pressure of 77.53 mbar can meet the requirements of the ideal formulation in order to achieve 142.56 nm of PS and 75.18% EE, according to the level of desirability (D = 0.959). Folic acid was conjugated to Pluronic F127 to create folate receptor-targeted NC. The drug release profile of the nano-crystals in vitro demonstrated sustained release over an extended period. Folate receptor (FR)-targeted NC (O-PT-NC-Folate) has also been prepared by conjugating folic acid to Pluronic F127. MTT test is used to validate the targeting efficacy on the FR-positive human oral cancer cell line (KB). At pharmacologically relevant concentrations, the PT nano-crystal formulation did not cause hemolysis. Compared to non-targeted NC of PT, the O-PT-NC-Folate showed a comparable but more sustained anti-cancer effect, according to an in vivo anti-tumor investigation in NCI/ADR-RES cell lines. The remarkable anti-tumor effectiveness, minimal toxicity, and simplicity of scale-up manufacturing of the NC formulations indicate their potential for clinical development. Other hydrophobic medications that are formulated into nano-systems for improved therapy may benefit from the formulation approach.

Development of Novel Unfolding Film System of Itopride Hydrochloride Using Box-Behnken Design-A Gastro Retentive Approach

Currently, gastro-retentive dosage forms achieved a remarkable position among the oral drug delivery systems. This is a broadly used technique to hold the drug delivery systems for a long duration in the gastro intestine (GI) region, slow drug delivery, and overcome other challenges related to typical oral delivery such as low bioavailability. The current work aimed to formulate and characterize a new expandable gastro-retentive system through Itopride Hydrochloride (IH)’s unfolding process for controlled release. The IH-loaded unfolding film formulation was optimized using the Box-Behnken design for folding endurance and length of tested layer (LTL). Initially, the formulation was made using several anti-adhesive additives to promote the unfolding mechanism. Citric acid and sodium bicarbonate were selected as anti-adhesives based on these results. The enfolded film in a capsule shell was shown to unroll in the stomach fluids and render drug delivery up to 12 h in acidic conditions. A fabricated system should have dimensions more than the size of the relaxed pyloric sphincter, and as required, >20 mm LTL was identified. This further confirms that the residence period in the stomach is irrelevant to the fed or fasted condition. Based on desirability criteria, the formulation containing 143.83, 0.7982, and 14.6096 Eudragit L100, PEG, and sodium bicarbonate are selected as optimized formulations (O-IH-UF). The optimized formulation was further analyzed for various parameters such as tensile strength, mechanical strength, unfolding nature, degradability, and in vitro release studies. The pharmacokinetic study revealed greater AUC (area under the curve) and long half-life with the designed O-IH-UF formulation, confirming that the unfolding film type can be a favorable drug system for enhancing the bioavailability of low soluble drugs. The results showed that unfolding types of gastro retentive systems could potentiate the drugs with stability issues in an alkaline medium or those with absorption in acidic conditions.

Design and Development of Neomycin Sulfate Gel Loaded with Solid Lipid Nanoparticles for Buccal Mucosal Wound Healing

Drug administration to the wound site is a potential method for wound healing. The drug retention duration should be extended, and drug permeability through the buccal mucosal layer should be regulated. Oral wounds can be caused by inflammation, ulcers, trauma, or pathological lesions; if these wounds are not treated properly, they can lead to pain, infection, and subsequent undesirable scarring. This study aimed to develop Kolliphor-407 P-based gel containing neomycin sulfate (NES) loaded in solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and enhance the antimicrobial activity. By considering lipid concentrations and achieving the lowest particle size (Y1) and maximum entrapment (EE-Y2) effectiveness, the formulation of NES-SLN was optimized using the Box–Behnken design. For the selected responses, 17 runs were formulated (as anticipated by the Design-Expert software) and evaluated accordingly. The optimized formulation could achieve a particle size of 196.25 and EE of 89.27% and was further utilized to prepare the gel formulation. The NES-SLN-G formula was discovered to have a smooth, homogeneous structure and good mechanical and rheological properties. After 24 h of treatment, NES-SLN-G showed a regulated in vitro drug release pattern, excellent ex vivo permeability, and increased in vitro antibacterial activity. These findings indicate the potential application of NES-SLN-loaded gels as a promising formulation for buccal mucosal wound healing.

Augmentation of Antidiabetic Activity of Glibenclamide Microspheres Using S-Protected Okra Powered by QbD: Scintigraphy and In Vivo Studies

Successful drug delivery by mucoadhesive systems depends on the polymer type, which usually gets adherent on hydration. The intended polymers must sustain the association with biomembranes and preserve or accommodate the drug for an extended time. The majority of hydrophilic polymers tend to make weak interactions like noncovalent bonds, which hampers the positioning of dosage forms at the required target sites, leading to inefficient therapeutic outcomes. It is possible to overcome this by functionalizing the natural polymers with thiol moiety. Further, considering that S-protected thiomers can benefit by improving thiol stability at a broad range of pH and enhancing the residence period at the required target, 2-mercapto-nicotinic acid (MA) was utilized in this present study to shield the free thiol groups on thiolated okra (TO). S-protected TO (STO) was synthesized and characterized for various parameters. Glibenclamide-loaded microspheres were formulated using STO (G-STO-M), and the process was optimized. The optimized formulation has shown complete and controlled release of the loaded drug at the end of the dissolution study. Cell viability assay indicated that the thiolated S-protected polymers gelated very well, and the formulated microspheres were safe. Further, G-STO-M showed considerable in vivo mucoadhesion strength. The glucose tolerance test confirmed the efficacy of STO formulation in minimizing the plasma glucose level. These results favor S-protection as an encouraging tool for improving the absorption of poorly aqueous soluble drugs like glibenclamide.

Development of Nanocrystal Compressed Minitablets for Chronotherapeutic Drug Delivery

The present work aimed to develop a chronotherapeutic system of valsartan (VS) using nanocrystal formulation to improve dissolution. VS nanocrystals (VS-NC) were fabricated using modified anti-solvent precipitation by employing a Box−Behnken design to optimize various process variables. Based on the desirability approach, a formulation containing 2.5% poloxamer, a freezing temperature of −25 °C, and 24 h of freeze-drying time can fulfill the optimized formulation’s requirements to result in a particle size of 219.68 nm, 0.201 polydispersity index, and zeta potential of −38.26 mV. Optimized VS-NC formulation was compressed (VNM) and coated subsequently with ethyl cellulose and HPMC E 5. At the same time, fast dissolving tablets of VS were designed, and the best formulation was loaded with VNM into a capsule size 1 (average fill weight—400−500 mg, lock length—19.30 mm, external diameter: Cap—6.91 mm; Body—6.63 mm). The final tab in cap (tablet-in-capsule) system was studied for in vitro dissolution profile to confirm the chronotherapeutic release of VS. As required, a bi-pulse release of VS was identified with a lag time of 5 h. The accelerated stability studies confirmed no significant changes in the dissolution profiles of the tab in cap system (f2 similarity profile: >90). To conclude, the tab in cap system was successfully developed to induce a dual pulsatile release, which will ensure bedtime dosing with release after a lag-time to match with early morning circadian spikes.