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Pennington ER, Griffin JS, McInroe EM, Steinhardt W, Chen H, Samet JM, Prince SE. Variation in the fitted filtration efficiency of disposable face masks by sex. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2024:10.1038/s41370-024-00697-4. [PMID: 38956275 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-024-00697-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE Disposable face masks are a primary protective measure against the adverse health effects of exposure to infectious and toxic aerosols such as airborne viruses and particulate air pollutants. While the fit of high efficiency respirators is regulated in occupational settings, relatively little is known about the fitted filtration efficiencies of ear loop style face masks worn by the public. METHODS We measured the variation in fitted filtration efficiency (FFE) of four commonly worn disposable face masks, in a cohort of healthy adult participants (N = 100, 50% female, 50% male, average age = 32.3 ± 9.2 years, average BMI = 25.5 ± 3.4) using the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration Quantitative Fit Test, for an N95 (respirator), KN95, surgical, and KF94 masks. The latter three ear loop style masks were additionally tested in a clip-modified condition, tightened using a plastic clip to centrally fasten loops in the back of the head. RESULTS The findings show that sex is a major determinant of the FFE of KN95, surgical, and KF94 masks. On average, males had an 11% higher FFE relative to females, at baseline testing. We show that a simple modification using an ear loop clip, results in improvements in the average FFE for females but provides comparatively minor changes for males. On average, females had a 20% increased FFE when a clip was worn behind the head, relative to a 6% increase for males. IMPACT The efficacy of a disposable face mask as protection against air contaminants depends on the efficiency of the mask materials and how well it fits the wearer. We report that the sex of the wearer is a major determinant of the baseline fitted filtration efficiency (FFE) of commonly available ear loop style face masks. In addition, we show that a simple fit modifier, an ear loop clip fastened behind the head, substantially improves baseline FFE for females but produces only minor changes for males. These findings have significant public health implications for the use of face masks as a protective intervention against inhalational exposure to airborne contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward R Pennington
- Public Health and Integrated Toxicology Division, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Jacob S Griffin
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - E Melissa McInroe
- Public Health and Integrated Toxicology Division, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | | | - Hao Chen
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science Education, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - James M Samet
- Public Health and Integrated Toxicology Division, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Steven E Prince
- Public Health and Environmental Systems Division, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
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Lee K, Jung YW, Park H, Kim D, Kim J. Sequential Multiscale Simulation of a Filtering Facepiece for Prediction of Filtration Efficiency and Resistance in Varied Particulate Scenarios. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:57908-57920. [PMID: 34802233 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c16850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
This study explores a novel approach of multiscale modeling and simulation to characterize the filtration behavior of a facepiece in varied particulate conditions. Sequential multiscale modeling was performed for filter media, filtering facepiece, and testing setup. The developed virtual models were validated for their morphological characteristics and filtration performance by comparing with the data from the physical experiments. Then, a virtual test was conducted in consideration of a time scale, simulating diverse particulate environments with different levels of particle size distribution, particle concentration, and face velocity. An environment with small particles and high mass concentration resulted in a rapid buildup of resistance, reducing the service life. Large particles were accumulated mostly at the entrance of the filter layer, resulting in a lower penetration and slower buildup of resistance. This study is significant in that the adopted virtual approach enables the prediction of filtration behavior and service life, applying diverse environmental conditions without involving the costs of extra setups for the physical experiments. This study demonstrates a novel and economic research method that can be effectively applied to the research and development of filters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyeongeun Lee
- Department of Textiles, Merchandising and Fashion Design, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
- Reliability Assessment Center, FITI Testing & Research Institute, Seoul 07791, Korea
| | - Yeon-Woo Jung
- Reliability Assessment Center, FITI Testing & Research Institute, Seoul 07791, Korea
| | - Hanjou Park
- Department of Textiles, Merchandising and Fashion Design, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
| | - Dongmi Kim
- Digital Material Laboratory, Trinity Engineering, Seoul 07997, Korea
| | - Jooyoun Kim
- Department of Textiles, Merchandising and Fashion Design, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
- Research Institute of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Korea
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Stahl C, Frederick K, Chaudhary S, Morton CJ, Loy D, Muralidharan K, Sorooshian A, Parthasarathy S. Comparison of the Filtration Efficiency of Different Face Masks Against Aerosols. Front Med (Lausanne) 2021; 8:654317. [PMID: 34277652 PMCID: PMC8282900 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2021.654317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic can spread through virus-containing aerosols ( ≤ 5 μm) and larger airborne droplets. Quantifying filtration efficiency of different kinds of masks and linings for aerosols that fall within the most penetrating particle size (80-400 nm) is critical to limiting viral transmission. The objective of our experiment was to compare the “real-world” filtering efficiency of different face masks for fine aerosols (350 nm) in laboratory simulations. Methods: We performed a simulated bench test that measured the filtering efficiency of N95 vs. N99 masks with elastomeric lining in relation to baseline (“background”) aerosol generation. A mannequin head was placed within a chamber and was attached to an artificial lung simulator. Particles of known size (350 ± 6 nm aerodynamic diameter) were aerosolized into the chamber while simulating breathing at physiological settings of tidal volume, respiratory rate, and airflow. Particle counts were measured between the mannequin head and the lung simulator at the tracheal airway location. Results: Baseline particle counts without a filter (background) were 2,935 ± 555 (SD) cm−3, while the N95 (1348 ± 92 cm−3) and N99 mask with elastomeric lining (279 ± 164 cm−3; p <0.0001) exhibit lower counts due to filtration. Conclusion: The filtration efficiency of the N95 (54.1%) and N99 (90.5%) masks were lower than the filtration efficiency rating. N99 masks with elastomeric lining exhibit greater filtration efficiency than N95 masks without elastomeric lining and may be preferred to contain the spread of SARS-CoV-2 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor Stahl
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Kevin Frederick
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Sachin Chaudhary
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Christopher J Morton
- University of Arizona Health Sciences Center for Sleep and Circadian Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Douglas Loy
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Krishna Muralidharan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Armin Sorooshian
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Department of Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Sairam Parthasarathy
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,University of Arizona Health Sciences Center for Sleep and Circadian Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
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Evaluation of a Filtering Facepiece Respirator and a Pleated Particulate Respirator in Filtering Ultrafine Particles and Submicron Particles in Welding and Asphalt Plant Work Environments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18126437. [PMID: 34198698 PMCID: PMC8296285 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Manufacturing sites, such as welding, casting, and asphalt production (fumes), generate vast numbers of ultrafine particles of <0.1 µm in size and submicron particles close to the ultrafine range (0.1-0.5 µm). Although cumulative masses of these particles are negligible in comparison to the larger particles, the health effects are more severe due to the higher penetration in the human lower respiratory tract, other body parts crossing the respiratory epithelial layers, and the larger surface area. This research investigates the effectiveness of two common commercially available N95 filtering facepieces and N95 pleated particulate respirator models against ultrafine and submicron particles. Two specific types of respirators, the N95 filtering facepiece and the N95 pleated particulate models, in both sealed and unsealed conditions to the manikin face, were tested at various commercial and academic manufacturing sites, a welding and foundry site, and an asphalt production plant. Two TSI Nanoscan SMPS nanoparticle counters were used simultaneously to collect data for particles of 10-420 nm in size from inside and outside of the respirators. While one of them represented the workplace exposure levels, the other one accounted for the exposure upon filtration through the respiratory surfaces. The results showed the particles generated by these manufacturing operations were mostly within the range of from 40 to 200 nm. Results also indicated that while the percentage of filtration levels varied based on the particle size, it remained mostly within the desired protection level of 95% for both of the N95 respirator models in sealed conditions and even for the N95 pleated particulate model in the unsealed condition. However, in the case of the N95 filtering facepiece model, unsealed respirators showed that the percentage of penetration was very high, decreasing the protection levels to 60% in some cases. Although the number of workplace airborne particle levels varied considerably, the filtration percentages were relatively consistent.
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Hong J, Kang H, An J, Choi J, Hong T, Park HS, Lee DE. Towards environmental sustainability in the local community: Future insights for managing the hazardous pollutants at construction sites. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 403:123804. [PMID: 33264906 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Although various technologies are being developed in the construction industry, management technologies for achieving environmental sustainability in the local community are still lacking. As such, this study suggests future insights for the development of an automated intelligent environment management system for the promotion of environmental sustainability in the local community, through a systematic review of 1,707 relevant literature. The systematic review was conducted in two steps: (i) quantitative review: keyword co-occurrence and trend analysis; and (ii) qualitative review: a review on monitoring, evaluation, and improvement technologies. As a result, the research level related to the local-level pollutants (noise, vibration, and dust) was found to be quantitatively insufficient, and the limitations of the existing technologies for these pollutants were presented. Eventually, to overcome these limitations, new technologies and application strategies that can be applied to construction sites as future research roadmap to effectively manage the hazardous pollutants were proposed. Furthermore, an intelligent management system should be developed, and the management of environmental complaints is also necessary for environmental sustainability at the local level in the construction industry. As a fundamental study, this study could become a benchmark for future researches dealing with environmental sustainability and hazardous pollutants in the construction industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juwon Hong
- Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyuna Kang
- Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jongbaek An
- Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jinwoo Choi
- Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Taehoon Hong
- Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hyo Seon Park
- Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Dong-Eun Lee
- School of Arch, Civil, Environment, and Energy, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea.
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