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Liu T, Liu Y, Su Y, Hao J, Liu S. Air pollution and upper respiratory diseases: an examination among medically insured populations in Wuhan, China. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BIOMETEOROLOGY 2024; 68:1123-1132. [PMID: 38507092 DOI: 10.1007/s00484-024-02651-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
Multiple evidence has supported that air pollution exposure has detrimental effects on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. However, most investigations focus on the general population, with limited research conducted on medically insured populations. To address this gap, the current research was designed to examine the acute effects of inhalable particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ground-level ozone (O3), and sulfur dioxide (SO2) on the incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI), utilizing medical insurance data in Wuhan, China. Data on URTI were collected from the China Medical Insurance Basic Database for Wuhan covering the period from 2014 to 2018, while air pollutant data was gathered from ten national monitoring stations situated in Wuhan city. Statistical analysis was performed using generalized additive models for quasi-Poisson distribution with a log link function. The analysis indicated that except for ozone, higher exposure to four other pollutants (NO2, SO2, PM2.5, and PM10) were significantly linked to an elevated risk of URTI, particularly during the previous 0-3 days and previous 0-4 days. Additionally, NO2 and SO2 were found to be positively linked with laryngitis. Furthermore, the effects of air pollutants on the risk of URTI were more pronounced during cold seasons than hot seasons. Notably, females and the employed population were more susceptible to infection than males and non-employed individuals. Our findings gave solid proof of the link between ambient air pollution exposure and the risk of URTI in medically insured populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyu Liu
- Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Yuehua Liu
- Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, 30 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing, China
| | - Yaqian Su
- School of Public Health, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jiayuan Hao
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine of University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Suyang Liu
- School of Public Health, Shantou University, Shantou, 515063, Guangdong Province, China.
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Madani NA, Carpenter DO. Patterns of Emergency Room Visits for Respiratory Diseases in New York State in Relation to Air Pollution, Poverty and Smoking. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:3267. [PMID: 36833962 PMCID: PMC9966596 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20043267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
We have explored differences in rates of emergency room (ER) visits for respiratory diseases in the counties of New York State (NYS) in relation to levels of air pollution, poverty, and smoking. Air pollution information was derived from the National Emissions Inventory, which provides information on road, non-road, point, and non-point sources of 12 different air pollutants. This information is only available at the county level. Four types of respiratory diseases were considered: asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), acute lower respiratory diseases, and acute upper respiratory diseases. Asthma ER visits were elevated in counties with greater total air pollution. All forms of respiratory diseases were elevated in counties with a greater rate of poverty, although this may reflect the fact that poor people often use ERs for routine care. There was a very strong association between rates of smoking for COPD and acute lower respiratory diseases. There was an apparent negative association between smoking and asthma ER visits, but this must reflect the fact that smoking was much more common in upstate counties while asthma was more common in the New York City area, where air pollution is high. Air pollution was much greater in urban than in rural areas. Our evidence indicates that air pollution is the greatest risk factor for asthma attacks, whereas smoking is the greatest risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lower respiratory disease. Poor people are more vulnerable to all forms of respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Najm Alsadat Madani
- Department of Environmental Health Science, School of Public Health, 1 University Place, University at Albany, Rensselaer, NY 12144, USA
- Institute for Health and the Environment, 5 University Place, University at Albany, Rensselaer, NY 12144, USA
| | - David O. Carpenter
- Department of Environmental Health Science, School of Public Health, 1 University Place, University at Albany, Rensselaer, NY 12144, USA
- Institute for Health and the Environment, 5 University Place, University at Albany, Rensselaer, NY 12144, USA
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Liu Y, Wang Y, Dong J, Wang J, Bao H, Zhai G. Association between air pollution and emergency department visits for upper respiratory tract infection inLanzhou, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:28816-28828. [PMID: 34989991 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-17932-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
There is limited evidence regarding the associations between air pollution and emergency hospital visits for upper respiratory tract infection (URTI) in the arid regions of northwest China. We collected daily emergency department (ED) visits for URTI from three hospitals in Lanzhou during January 2014 and December 2018, as well as daily air pollutants and meteorological factors. In the present study, generalized additive model with quasi-Poisson regression was used to evaluate the relationship between short-term exposure to ambient pollutants and daily emergency hospital visits for URTI in Lanzhou, China. Furthermore, subgroup analyses were conducted by gender (male and female), age (0-14, 15-64, and ≥ 65 years)), and season (cold season, warm season). The results of the single-pollutant model show that the associations of PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2, and CO with URTI ED visits were all statistically significant, whereas we observed insignificant associations of O38h. The highest association of each pollutant with hospital emergency visits was observed with PM2.5 (5.302% (95% CI: 3.202, 7.445)), PM10 (0.808% (95% CI: 0.291, 1.328)), SO2 (10.607% (95% CI: 5.819, 15.611)), and NO2 (5.325% (95% CI: 2.379, 8.357)) at lag 07 for an increase of 10 ug/m3 in concentrations of the pollutants. Percentage increase for each 1-mg/m3 increase in CO was 20.799% (95% CI: 11.834, 30.482) at lag 07. In the stratification analyses, females were more susceptible to PM2.5 and PM10, while males were more sensitive to the effects of SO2, NO2, and CO, and the higher association effect of four pollutants (PM2.5, SO2, NO2, and CO) on hospital visits for URTI among children (0-14 years). The associations appeared to be stronger in the cool season than in the warm season. This study suggests that short-term exposure to air pollution, especially to SO2 and CO, was associated with increased risk of hospital emergency visits for URTI in Lanzhou, China. Relevant strategies and health interventions should be strengthened to reduce the air pollution level in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yurong Liu
- School of Public Health, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Lanzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanru Wang
- School of Public Health, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Lanzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiyuan Dong
- School of Public Health, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, Lanzhou, People's Republic of China.
| | - Jiancheng Wang
- Gansu Provincial Hospital, Lanzhou, 730050, People's Republic of China
| | - Hairong Bao
- Department of Gerontal Respiratory Medicine, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Guangyu Zhai
- School of Economics and Management, Lanzhou University of Technology, Lanzhou, 730050, People's Republic of China
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Zhou X, Wang C, Chen P, Chen Y, Yin L, Du W, Pu Y. Time series analysis of short-term effects of particulate matter pollution on the circulatory system disease mortality risk in Lishui District, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:17520-17529. [PMID: 34665418 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-17095-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiological evidence has shown a significant association between short-term exposure to air pollution and mortality risk for circulatory system diseases (CSD). However, informative insights on the significance and magnitude of its relationship in the process of government interventions on abating air pollution are still lacking, particularly in a burgeoning Chinese city. In this study, we conducted a time series study in Lishui District, Nanjing, to examine the effect of ambient particulate matter (PM), e.g., PM2.5 and PM10, on daily death counts of CSD which included cardiovascular disease (CVD), cerebrovascular disease (CEVD), and arteriosclerotic heart disease (ASHD) mortality from January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2019. The results revealed that each 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 and PM10 concentration at lag0 day was associated with an increase of 1.33% (95% confidence interval, 0.08%, 2.60%) and 1.12% (0.43%, 1.82%) in CSD mortality; 2.42% (0.44%, 4.43%) and 1.43% (0.32%, 2.55%) in CVD mortality; 1.20% (- 0.31%, 2.73%) and 1.21% (0.38%, 2.05%) in CEVD mortality; and 2.78% (0.00%, 5.62%) and 1.66% (0.14%, 3.21%) in ASHD mortality, respectively. For cumulative risk, the corresponding increase in daily mortality for the same change in PM2.5 concentration at lag03 day was significantly associated with 1.94% (0.23%, 3.68%), 3.17% (0.58%, 5.84%), 2.38% (0.17%, 4.63%), and 4.92% (1.18%, 8.81%) for CSD, CVD, CEVD, and ASHD, respectively. The exposure-response curves were approximately nonlinear over the entire exposure range of the PM concentrations. We also analyzed the effect modifications by season (warm or cold), age group (0-64 years, 65-74 years, or ≥ 75 years), and sex (male or female). Although not statistically significant, stratified analysis showed greater vulnerability to PM exposure for cold season, population over 65 years of age, and female group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xudan Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Ce Wang
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Chen
- The Lishui Smart City Operating Command Center, Nanjing, 211200, China
| | - Yuqi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Lihong Yin
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Wei Du
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China.
| | - Yuepu Pu
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine Engineering, Ministry of Education, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210009, China.
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Duan R, Wu Y, Wang M, Wu J, Wang X, Wang Z, Hu Y, Duan L. Association between short-term exposure to fine particulate pollution and outpatient visits for ulcerative colitis in Beijing, China: A time-series study. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 214:112116. [PMID: 33706140 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Environmental factors play an important role in the development of ulcerative colitis (UC). However, only few studies have examined the effects of air pollution on UC occurrence. We conducted a time-series analysis to explore the association between short-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and outpatient visits for UC in Beijing, China. In total, 84,000 outpatient visits for UC were retrieved from the Beijing Medical Claim Data for Employees between January 1, 2010 and June 30, 2012. Measurements of daily PM2.5 concentrations were obtained from the United States Embassy air-monitoring station. A generalized additive model with quasi-Poisson link was applied to examine the association between PM2.5 concentrations and outpatient visits for UC stratified by sex, age, and season. We found that short-term exposure to PM2.5 was significantly associated with increased daily outpatient visits for UC at lag 0 day. A 10 μg/m3 increase in PM2.5 concentration at lag 0 day corresponded to a 0.32% increase in outpatient visits for UC (95% confidence interval (CI), 0.05-0.58%; P = 0.019). There was a clear concentration-response association between daily outpatient visits for UC and PM2.5 concentrations. The PM2.5 effects were significant across all sex and season subgroups, without evidence of effect modification by sex (P = 0.942) or season (P = 0.399). The association was positive in patients younger than 65 years old but negative in those 65 years old or older, although the difference was not significant (P = 0.883). In conclusion, our study demonstrated that short-term exposure to ambient PM2.5 was significantly associated with an increased risk of daily outpatient visits for UC, especially in younger people. Additional studies are warranted to confirm our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruqiao Duan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yao Wu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Mengying Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Junhui Wu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiaowen Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Zijing Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yonghua Hu
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Liping Duan
- Department of Gastroenterology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing 100191, China.
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Lu C, Norbäck D, Zhang Y, Li B, Zhao Z, Huang C, Zhang X, Qian H, Wang J, Liu W, Yang X, Sun Y, Sundell J, Deng Q. Common cold among young adults in China without a history of asthma or allergic rhinitis - associations with warmer climate zone, dampness and mould at home, and outdoor PM 10 and PM 2.5. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 749:141580. [PMID: 32841860 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper studied associations between reported common cold and home dampness and mould, cleaning habits and ventilation, climate and outdoor air pollution in China among young adults without asthma or allergic rhinitis. Parents of children attending day care in eight Chinese cities answered a questionnaire on their health and home environment (75% response rate). We restricted the population to subject without asthma or allergic rhinitis (N = 37,275). Temperature and air pollution data was obtained from monitoring stations. Associations were estimated by multilevel logistic regression. Totally 12.5% reported common cold (≥3 colds) and 1.6% frequent common cold (≥5 colds) in the past 12 months. Female gender (OR = 1.53; 95% CI 1.37-1.71), residents in southern China (OR = 1.89; 95% CI 1.16-3.07) and living in homes with water leakage (OR = 1.32; 95% CI 1.16-1.50), mould odour (OR = 1.48; 95% CI 1.28-1.72), indoor mould (OR = 1.47; 95% CI 1.28-1.70), condensation on window panes (OR = 1.42; 95% CI 1.32-1.52) and damp bed clothing (OR = 1.19; 95% CI 1.11-1.28) were associated with common cold. Having many signs of dampness increased ORs. Daily cleaning (OR = 0.91; 95% CI 0.85-0.97) and mechanical ventilation in kitchen or bathroom (OR = 0.75; 95% CI 0.64-0.89) were protective. Higher mean ambient temperature (OR = 1.11 per °C; 95% CI 1.02-1.21), PM10 (OR = 1.17 per 10 μg/m3; 95% CI 1.14-1.21) and PM2.5 (OR = 1.28 per 10 μg/m3; 95% CI 1.20-1.37) were associated with common cold. The association with particulate air pollution was stronger in southern China. Similar associations were found for frequent common cold. In conclusion, indoor dampness and mould, a warmer climate and PM10 and PM2.5 can be associated with reported common cold. Further intervention and prospective studies are needed to verify causality of observed association in this cross-sectional study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Lu
- XiangYa School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Dan Norbäck
- XiangYa School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; School of Energy Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Yinping Zhang
- School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Baizhan Li
- Key Laboratory of Three Gorges Reservoir Region's Eco-Environment, Chongqing University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhuohui Zhao
- Department of Environmental Health, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chen Huang
- Department of Building Environment and Energy Engineering, School of Environment and Architecture, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Research Center for Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, China
| | - Hua Qian
- School of Energy & Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Juan Wang
- Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Wei Liu
- School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Xu Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yuexia Sun
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Jan Sundell
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Qihong Deng
- XiangYa School of Public Health, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China; School of Energy Science and Engineering, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China.
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Burhan E, Mukminin U. A systematic review of respiratory infection due to air pollution during natural disasters. MEDICAL JOURNAL OF INDONESIA 2020. [DOI: 10.13181/mji.oa.204390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Wildfire and volcano eruption occurred in Indonesia due to its geographical location, climate change, global warming, and human behavior. Various substances produced an increased risk of experiencing health problems, including respiratory infection. Evidence about the effect of pulmonary infection during natural disasters is still limited. This study was aimed to review and elaborate on previous studies to determine the effect of air pollution exposure during natural disasters and respiratory infection.
METHODS Literature searches were conducted on PubMed, EBSCOhost, and Google Scholar, and was limited to the 10 last years, human studies, and the English language. Inclusion criteria were articles with representation for clinical questions, review articles, population studies, and the full-text article was available. Exclusion criteria were articles that only discussed the exposure to and not the association with the effect of the respiratory infection. The Oxford Center for Evidence-Based Medicine tools appraised six relevant articles.
RESULTS Air pollution during a natural disaster enhances particulate matter to 10–70 μg/m3 and more than 5 times the aerosol optical depth measurement compared with the tolerated air concentration. The air level was consistently related to acute respiratory infection, pneumonia, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis admissions in wildfire smoke and volcanic eruption in this review. Nevertheless, there was a diverse result for upper respiratory infection cases.
CONCLUSIONS Natural disasters increased the level of ambient air pollution that exceeded the levels recommended by the World Health Organization air quality guideline. Air pollution may play an important role in respiratory tract infection, especially among population with high exposure.
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Yang L, Li C, Tang X. The Impact of PM 2.5 on the Host Defense of Respiratory System. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:91. [PMID: 32195248 PMCID: PMC7064735 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The harm of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) to public health is the focus of attention around the world. The Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study 2015 (GBD 2015 Risk Factors Collaborators, 2016) ranked PM2.5 as the fifth leading risk factor for death, which caused 4.2 million deaths and 103.1 million disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) loss, representing 7.6% of total global deaths and 4.2% of global DALYs. Epidemiological studies have confirmed that exposure to PM2.5 increases the incidence and mortality of respiratory infections. The host defense dysfunction caused by PM2.5 exposure may be the key to the susceptibility of respiratory system infection. Thus, this review aims to assess the impact of PM2.5 on the host defense of respiratory system. Firstly, we elaborated the epidemiological evidence that exposure to PM2.5 increases the risk of respiratory infections. Secondly, we summarized the experimental evidence that PM2.5 exposure increases the susceptibility of different pathogens (including bacteria and viruses) in respiratory system. Furthermore, here we discussed the underlying host defense mechanisms by which PM2.5 exposure increases the risk of respiratory infections as well as future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, The First Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Cheng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, The First Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, The First Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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[Predictors of Utilization of Cardiovascular and Respiratory Emergency Department Visits - what Impact does the Environment have?]. DAS GESUNDHEITSWESEN 2019; 83:105-113. [PMID: 31614385 DOI: 10.1055/a-1005-7161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
AIM There has been an increasing number of emergency department (ED) visits recently. It is unclear whether, in addition to a shift in services from the outpatient to the inpatient sector, other causes, (e. g. environmental factors), play a role. The aim was to investigate associations between the number of cardiovascular and respiratory ED visits and environmental variables. METHODS Highly correlated environmental data were subjected to a principal component analysis. By using cross-correlation functions, environmental variables with time lags that showed the highest correlation with the number of ED visits were taken into consideration in the UNIANOVA analysis model, together with, among others, the day of the week and interaction terms. RESULTS The final regression model explained 47% of the variation in respiratory ED visits demonstrating main effects for Mondays (B=10.69; p<0.001). Season showed significant effects with highest ED visits in autumn. No direct associations between environmental variables and number of respiratory ED visits were found. The results for the cardiovascular outcome were less expressive (R2=0.20). Again, the day of the week had the main effect on cardiovascular ED visits (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that weekdays had the main effect on ED visits. In future, we will collect and analyze environmental data at the micro level to achieve a higher model quality and better interpretability.
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