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Khoshakhlagh AH, Ghobakhloo S, Peijnenburg WJGM, Gruszecka-Kosowska A, Cicchella D. To breathe or not to breathe: Inhalational exposure to heavy metals and related health risk. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 932:172556. [PMID: 38679085 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
This study reviewed scientific literature on inhalation exposure to heavy metals (HMs) in various indoor and outdoor environments and related carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risk. A systematic search in Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Embase, and Medline databases yielded 712 results and 43 articles met the requirements of the Population, Exposure, Comparator, and Outcomes (PECO) criteria. Results revealed that HM concentrations in most households exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) guideline values, indicating moderate pollution and dominant anthropogenic emission sources of HMs. In the analyzed schools, universities, and offices low to moderate levels of air pollution with HMs were revealed, while in commercial environments high levels of air pollution were stated. The non-carcinogenic risk due to inhalation HM exposure exceeded the acceptable level of 1 in households, cafes, hospitals, restaurants, and metros. The carcinogenic risk for As and Cr in households, for Cd, Cr, Ni, As, and Co in educational environments, for Pb, Cd, Cr, and Co in offices and commercial environments, and for Ni in metros exceeded the acceptable level of 1 × 10-4. Carcinogenic risk was revealed to be higher indoors than outdoors. This review advocates for fast and effective actions to reduce HM exposure for safer breathing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Hossein Khoshakhlagh
- Department of Occupational Health Engineering, School of Health, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Safiye Ghobakhloo
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran.
| | - Willie J G M Peijnenburg
- Institute of Environmental Sciences (CML), Leiden University, Leiden 2300RA, the Netherlands; National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Center for Safety of Substances and Products, Bilthoven 3720BA, the Netherlands
| | - Agnieszka Gruszecka-Kosowska
- AGH University of Krakow; Faculty of Geology, Geophysics, and Environmental Protection, Department of Environmental Protection, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Krakow, Poland
| | - Domenico Cicchella
- Department of Science and Technology, University of Sannio, 82100 Benevento, Italy
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Cadondon J, Vallar E, Roque FJ, Rempillo O, Mandia P, Orbecido A, Beltran A, Deocaris C, Morris V, Belo L, Galvez MC. Elemental distribution and source analysis of atmospheric aerosols from Meycauayan, Bulacan, Philippines. Heliyon 2023; 9:e19459. [PMID: 37809711 PMCID: PMC10558599 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the industrialized cities in the Philippines is Meycauayan, Bulacan. This study reports the elemental distribution and source apportionment in eight varying land cover-land use type sampling points located along the Marilao-Meycauayan- Obando Rivers System. Elemental analysis was conducted using a scanning electron microscope coupled with energy dispersive x-ray. Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, Mn, As, Cd, Co, Fe, Ni, Ti, and V concentrations were determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, and Hg concentrations by Mercury analyzer. Principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), and Pearson's r correlation were used to analyze different sources of heavy metals and its corresponding land use-land cover type. The aerosol samples showed the presence of heavy metals Pb and Hg, elements that were also detected in trace amounts in the water measurements. Concentrations of heavy metals such as Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn, V, Ni, and As found in the atmospheric aerosols and urban dusts were attributed to anthropogenic sources such as residential, commercial and industrial wastes. Other source of aerosols in the area were traffic and crustal emissions in Meycauayan. Using HCA, there are 3 clusters observed based on the similar sets of heavy metals: (1) AQS1 (Caingin), AQS2 (Banga), and AQS8 (Malhacan); (2) AQS3(Calvario), AQS4 (Camalig), and AQS5(Langka); (3) AQS1(Sto Nino-Perez), and (AQS7) (Sterling). These groups are related based on different land use setting such as residential/commercial, agricultural, and commercial/industrial areas. Our study recommends the need to address heavy metal pollution in Meycauayan in support to the ongoing implementation of laws and regulations by the local and private sectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jumar Cadondon
- Environment And RemoTe sensing researcH (EARTH) Laboratory, Department of Physics, College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
- Division of Physical Sciences and Mathematics, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Visayas, Miagao 5023, Philippines
- Applied Research for Community, Health, and Environment Resilience and Sustainability (ARCHERS), Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research (CENSER), College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
| | - Edgar Vallar
- Environment And RemoTe sensing researcH (EARTH) Laboratory, Department of Physics, College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
- Applied Research for Community, Health, and Environment Resilience and Sustainability (ARCHERS), Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research (CENSER), College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
| | - Floro Junior Roque
- Environment And RemoTe sensing researcH (EARTH) Laboratory, Department of Physics, College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
- Applied Research for Community, Health, and Environment Resilience and Sustainability (ARCHERS), Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research (CENSER), College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
| | - Ofelia Rempillo
- Environment And RemoTe sensing researcH (EARTH) Laboratory, Department of Physics, College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
- Applied Research for Community, Health, and Environment Resilience and Sustainability (ARCHERS), Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research (CENSER), College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
| | - Paulito Mandia
- Environment And RemoTe sensing researcH (EARTH) Laboratory, Department of Physics, College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
- Applied Research for Community, Health, and Environment Resilience and Sustainability (ARCHERS), Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research (CENSER), College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
| | - Aileen Orbecido
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Gokongwei College of Engineering, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
| | - Arnel Beltran
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Gokongwei College of Engineering, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
| | - Custer Deocaris
- Philippine Nuclear Research Institute, Department of Science and Technology, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Vernon Morris
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, New College for Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, Arizona State University PO Box 37100, MC 1251, Phoenix, AZ, USA
| | - Lawrence Belo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Gokongwei College of Engineering, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
| | - Maria Cecilia Galvez
- Environment And RemoTe sensing researcH (EARTH) Laboratory, Department of Physics, College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
- Applied Research for Community, Health, and Environment Resilience and Sustainability (ARCHERS), Center for Natural Sciences and Environmental Research (CENSER), College of Science, De La Salle University, Manila 0922, Philippines
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Araja A, Bertins M, Celma G, Busa L, Viksna A. Distribution of Minor and Major Metallic Elements in Residential Indoor Dust: A Case Study in Latvia. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:6207. [PMID: 37444055 PMCID: PMC10341758 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20136207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has not only brought considerable and permanent changes to economies and healthcare systems, but it has also greatly changed the habits of almost the entire society. During the lockdowns, people were forced to stay in their dwellings, which served as a catalyst for the initiation of a survey on the estimation of the metallic element content in residential indoor dust in different parts of Latvia. This article presents the study results obtained through the analysis of collected dust samples from 46 dwellings, both in the capital of Latvia, Riga, and in smaller cities. Two methods were employed for indoor dust collection: vacuum sampling and manual sampling with a brush and plastic spatula. After microwave-assisted acid extraction, the samples were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) in terms of the major (Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al and Fe) and minor (Mn, Ni, Co, Pb, Cr, As, Ba, Li, Be, B, V, Cu, Zn, Se, Rb, Sr, Cd, La, Ce and Bi) elements. For the data analysis, principal component analysis was performed. Among the measured metals, the highest values were determined for the macro and most abundant elements (Na > K > Ca > Fe > Mg > Al). The concentration ranges of the persistently detected elements were as follows: Pb, 0.27-1200 mg kg-1; Cd, 0.01-6.37 mg kg-1; Ni, 0.07-513 mg kg-1; As, 0.01-69.2 mg kg-1; Cu, 5.71-1900 mg kg-1; Zn, 53.6-21,100 mg kg-1; and Cr, 4.93-412 mg kg-1. The critical limit values of metallic elements in soil defined by the legislation of the Republic of Latvia (indicating the level at or above which the functional characteristics of soil are disrupted, or pollution poses a direct threat to human health or the environment) were exceeded in the following numbers of dwellings: Pb = 4, Ni = 2, As = 1, Cu = 16, Cr = 1 and Zn = 28.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnese Araja
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Jelgavas Str.1, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia
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Tawabini B, Al-Enazi M, Alghamdi MA, Farahat A, Shemsi AM, Al Sharif MY, Khoder MI. Potentially Harmful Elements Associated with Dust of Mosques: Pollution Status, Sources, and Human Health Risks. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:2687. [PMID: 36768064 PMCID: PMC9916264 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20032687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Potentially harmful elements (PHEs) associated with dust generated from anthropogenic sources can be transported into mosques and deposited on the filters of the air-conditioners (AC); thereby, children and adults are exposed to such PHEs while visiting mosques. Data dealing with the assessment of PHEs pollution and its human health risk in mosques dust in Saudi Arabia are scarce. Therefore, this work aims to examine the levels and pollution status of PHEs in AC filter dust (ACFD) of mosques and their associated human health risk in three Saudi cities: Jubail, Jeddah, and Dammam metropolitan. A similar concentration pattern of PHEs is observed in three cities' mosques with noticeably higher concentrations than both global crustal and local background values for Zn, Cu, Pb, As, and Cd only. Except for Fe, Al, and Mn, the highest PHEs concentrations were found in Jeddah (1407 mg/kg), followed by Dammam (1239 mg/kg) and Jubail (1103 mg/kg). High PHEs' concentrations were also recorded in mosques located near workshops and suburban areas compared to urban areas. Based on the spatial pattern, enrichment factor, geo-accumulation index, pollution load index, and ecological risk values, Jubail, Jeddah, and Dammam have shown moderate pollution levels of Cd, As, Pb, and Zn. On the other hand, Cu. Zn, Cu, Cr, Pb, Ni, As, and Cd had degrees of enrichment levels that varied from significantly enriched to extremely highly enriched in the ACFD of the three cities. Heavy pollution is found in Jubail, which posed a higher potential ecological risk than in Jeddah and Dammam. Cd presents the highest ecological risk factors (ER) in the three cities. Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks for children and adults follow the order: Jeddah > Dammam > Jubail, and the ingestion pathway was the main route for exposure. Carcinogenic and con-carcinogenic risks in the mosques of the various studied cities were generally within the acceptable range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bassam Tawabini
- Department of Geosciences, College of Petroleum Engineering & Geosciences, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mubarak Al-Enazi
- Department of Geosciences, College of Petroleum Engineering & Geosciences, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mansour A. Alghamdi
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80208, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ashraf Farahat
- Department of Physics, College of Engineering and Physics, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahsan M. Shemsi
- Environmental Chemistry and Analytical Laboratories Section, Center for Environment and Marine Studies, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Marwan Y. Al Sharif
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80208, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mamdouh I. Khoder
- Air Pollution Research Department, Environment and Climate Change Research Institute, National Research Centre, El Behooth Str., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
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Elbarazi I, El-Zaemey S, Saddik B, Ádám B, El Sadig M, Abdullahi AS, Fritschi L, Sheek-Hussein M. Estimate of Occupational Exposure to Carcinogens among Migrant Workers in the United Arab Emirates: A Cross-Sectional Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:13012. [PMID: 36293617 PMCID: PMC9602412 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192013012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Occupational illnesses, such as cancer, cause more deaths each year than occupational accidents. Occupational carcinogens include physical, chemical, biological and organizational hazards. In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), migrant workers account for 80% of labor. Being sometimes employed as unskilled workers and more willing to work in demanding jobs, their vulnerability and exposure may be increased. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of occupational exposure to workplace carcinogens among migrant workers in the UAE. A sample of employees working in construction, cleaning, dry cleaning, mechanic workshops and hair salons were recruited and interviewed. Using OccIDEAS (an online assessment tool), participants were asked questions about their demographics, work history and regular tasks. Exposure to various carcinogens was estimated using the in-built algorithms of OccIDEAS. A sample of 1778 workers was included. The sample consisted of workers from Bangladesh (19.2%), India (31%), Nepal (4.7%), Pakistan (29.9%) and the Philippines (4.8%), with the rest from other nationalities. Overall, the prevalence of probable exposure was considerable, with the highest among drivers (96%) and the lowest among laundry workers (52%). Moderate to high exposure was found to 20 different carcinogens. Self-rated health among those who were exposed to carcinogens was significantly lower than among those not exposed (AOR = 0.783, 95% CI [0.638-0.961]). Exposure to several different carcinogens is relatively common in the UAE among migrant workers. Further strengthening policies and the implementation of tailored interventions are needed to prevent exposure to occupational carcinogens and, consequently, to combat occupational cancer in the UAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iffat Elbarazi
- Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sonia El-Zaemey
- School of Population Health, Curtin University, Bentley 6102, Australia
| | - Basema Saddik
- Department of Family and Community Medicine and Behavioral Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
- Sharjah Institute of Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah 27272, United Arab Emirates
| | - Balázs Ádám
- Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Mohamed El Sadig
- Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Aminu S. Abdullahi
- Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Lin Fritschi
- School of Population Health, Curtin University, Bentley 6102, Australia
| | - Mohamud Sheek-Hussein
- Institute of Public Health, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
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Gad A, Saleh A, Farhat HI, Dawood YH, Abd El Bakey SM. Spatial Distribution, Contamination Levels, and Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Elements in Household Dust in Cairo City, Egypt. TOXICS 2022; 10:toxics10080466. [PMID: 36006146 PMCID: PMC9414935 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10080466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Urban areas’ pollution, which is owing to rapid urbanization and industrialization, is one of the most critical issues in densely populated cities such as Cairo. The concentrations and the spatial distribution of fourteen potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in household dust were investigated in Cairo City, Egypt. PTE exposure and human health risk were assessed using the USEPA’s exposure model and guidelines. The levels of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, and Zn surpassed the background values. Contamination factor index revealed that contamination levels are in the sequence Cd > Hg > Zn > Pb > Cu > As > Mo > Ni > Cr > Co > V > Mn > Fe > Al. The degree of contamination ranges from considerably to very high pollution. Elevated PTE concentrations in Cairo’s household dust may be due to heavy traffic emissions and industrial activities. The calculated noncarcinogenic risk for adults falls within the safe limit, while those for children exceed that limit in some sites. Cairo residents are at cancer risk owing to prolonged exposure to the indoor dust in their homes. A quick and targeted plan must be implemented to mitigate these risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Gad
- Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt
- Correspondence: (A.G.); (A.S.)
| | - Ahmed Saleh
- National Research Institute of Astronomy and Geophysics (NRIAG), Cairo 11421, Egypt
- Correspondence: (A.G.); (A.S.)
| | - Hassan I. Farhat
- Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Suez University, El Salam City 43518, Egypt
| | - Yehia H. Dawood
- Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt
| | - Sahar M. Abd El Bakey
- Department of Biological and Geological Sciences, Faculty of Education, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11341, Egypt
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Al-Harbi M, Alhajri I, Whalen JK. Characteristics and health risk assessment of heavy metal contamination from dust collected on household HVAC air filters. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 277:130276. [PMID: 33773312 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Heavy metals associated with airborne particulate matter are detrimental to human health, but risk assessment is difficult due to the technical challenges of determining exposure rates. In houses and other buildings, the heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system is equipped with an air filter that captures airborne particulate matter from the indoor air that enters the HVAC system. This study used the air filter dust as a proxy for the heavy metal exposure of children and adults, based on a household study in Kuwait. Air filter dust contained from 12.5 ± 5 mg Co/kg dust to 14 453 ± 5046 mg Fe/kg dust. Houses had high levels of Fe, Al, Zn, and Mn and relatively low concentrations of As and Co. Source apportionment revealed that metals in air filter dust were from natural and anthropogenic sources, including vehicular emissions, fossil fuel combustion, and metals-related industries. The total Hazard Index (HI; Σ exposure routes) for heavy metals was >1 for children and adults. Total cancer risks (TCR; Σ exposure routes) were 5.93 × 10-3 (95% CI: 5.28 × 10-3- 6.59 × 10-3) for children and 5.16 × 10-3 (95% CI: 4.59 × 10-3 - 5.73 × 10-3) for adults. Heavy metals, particularly the Cr and Pb concentrations, contribute to the non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks of children and adults in Kuwait households.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meshari Al-Harbi
- Department of Environmental Technology Management, College of Life Sciences, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5969, 13060, Safat, Kuwait.
| | - Ibrahim Alhajri
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Technological Studies, P.O. Box 42325, Shuwaikh, 70654, Kuwait
| | - Joann K Whalen
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, 21111 Lakeshore Road, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, Canada H9X 3V9
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Alghamdi MA, Hassan SK, Alzahrani NA, Al Sharif MY, Khoder MI. Classroom Dust-Bound Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Jeddah Primary Schools, Saudi Arabia: Level, Characteristics and Health Risk Assessment. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E2779. [PMID: 32316605 PMCID: PMC7215388 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17082779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Data concerning polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Jeddah's schools, Saudi Arabia, and their implications for health risks to children, is scarce. Classroom air conditioner filter dusts were collected from primary schools in urban, suburban and residential areas of Jeddah. This study aimed to assess the characteristics of classroom-dust-bound PAHs and the health risks to children of PAH exposure. Average PAH concentrations were higher in urban schools than suburban and residential schools. Benzo (b)fluoranthene (BbF), benzo(ghi)perylene (BGP), chrysene (CRY) and Dibenz[a,h]anthracene (DBA) at urban and suburban schools and BbF, BGP, fluoranthene (FLT) and indeno (1, 2, 3, -cd)pyrene (IND) at residential schools were the dominant compounds in classroom dust. PAHs with five aromatic rings were the most abundant at all schools. The relative contribution of the individual PAH compounds to total PAH concentrations in the classroom dusts of schools indicate that the study areas do share a common source, vehicle emissions. Based on diagnostic ratios of PAHs, they are emitted from local pyrogenic sources, and traffic is the significant PAH source, with more significant contributions from gasoline-fueled than from diesel cars. Based on benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (BaPequi) calculations, total carcinogenic activity (TCA) for total PAHs represent 21.59% (urban schools), 20.99% (suburban schools), and 18.88% (residential schools) of total PAH concentrations. DBA and BaP were the most dominant compounds contributing to the TCA, suggesting the importance of BaP and DBA as surrogate compounds for PAHs in this schools. Based on incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCingestion, ILCRinhalation, ILCRdermal) and total lifetime cancer risk (TLCR)) calculations, the order of cancer risk was: urban schools > suburban schools > residential schools. Both ingestion and dermal contact are major contributors to cancer risk. Among PAHs, DBA, BaP, BbF, benzo(a)anthracene (BaA), benzo(k)fluoranthene (BkF), and IND have the highest ILCR values at all schools. LCR and TLCR values at all schools were lower than 10-6, indicating virtual safety. DBA, BaP and BbF were the predominant contributors to cancer effects in all schools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansour A. Alghamdi
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80208, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (M.Y.A.S.); (M.I.K.)
| | - Salwa K. Hassan
- Air Pollution Department, National Research Centre, El Behooth Str., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt;
| | - Noura A. Alzahrani
- Office of Education/South Jeddah (Girls), Department of Primary Grades, Ministry of Education, Jeddah 23524, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Marwan Y. Al Sharif
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80208, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (M.Y.A.S.); (M.I.K.)
| | - Mamdouh I. Khoder
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment and Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80208, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; (M.Y.A.S.); (M.I.K.)
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