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Dos Santos YS, Rossato M, Carneiro NB, Franken M, Antônio de Souza Castro F, de Jesus K, de Jesus K. Magnitude and direction of shoulder torque asymmetries between different angular velocities in competitive swimmers. Sports Biomech 2024:1-15. [PMID: 38934872 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2024.2370978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Asymmetries in swimming can be the result of poor technique or coordination between limbs, reducing the ability to produce propulsive force and increasing resistive drag. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the magnitude and determine the consistency of isokinetic peak torque asymmetries between the angular velocities of in the shoulder joint movements of internal and external rotation, flexion, and extension. Twenty-one competitive swimmers performed concentric actions at 60°/s (3 repetitions) and 180°/s (20 repetitions) in the movements of internal and external rotation, flexion, and extension of the shoulders using an isokinetic dynamometer, with the peak torque and asymmetry index being common metrics across the tests. The results showed a greater magnitude of asymmetry in internal rotation (16.86 vs. 9.86; p = 0.007) and flexion (12.06 vs. 7.35; p = 0.008) at 60 vs. 180°/s, respectively. The agreement levels of the direction of asymmetries between angular velocities were fair to substantial (Kappa: 0.40 to 0.69). Evaluating isokinetic torque in different movements and angular velocities resulted in different levels of asymmetry. Muscle force asymmetries can impact propulsion efficiency and movement coordination during swimming. Understanding muscle asymmetries allows the development of targeted and individualised training programmes to correct strength imbalances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves S Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Human Performance, Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Mateus Rossato
- Laboratory of Human Performance, Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Neice B Carneiro
- Laboratory of Human Performance, Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Marcos Franken
- Health Sciences Department, Integrated Regional University of Alto Uruguai and Missions, Santiago, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
- Aquatic Sports Research Group, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil
| | | | - Kelly de Jesus
- Laboratory of Human Performance, Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
| | - Karla de Jesus
- Laboratory of Human Performance, Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil
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Knihs DA, Bishop C, Zimmermann HB, Dal Pupo J. Between-session reliability of dry-land and in-water tests to measure inter-limb asymmetries in swimmers. J Sports Sci 2024; 42:737-750. [PMID: 38836573 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2024.2363695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
The aims of the present study were to: i) analyse the between-session reliability of dry-land and in-water swimming tests, and ii) investigate the prevalence of meaningful asymmetries in swimming athletes. Twenty-eight swimmers (21 males, 7 females) performed anthropometric, shoulder range of motion (ROM), countermovement jump, shoulder isokinetic torque, and 15-s tethered swimming tests two times, 1 week apart. Inter-limb asymmetries were calculated for each variable. Raw data reliability was determined using the intraclass coefficient correlation (ICC) and the typical error of measurement (TEM), and effect size (ES) was used to determine systematic bias between test sessions. At an individual level, inter-limb asymmetries were compared to the coefficient of variation (CV) to determine whether they were real. The between-session reliability was good to excellent (0.75 to 1.00) for most of the raw data, except for ROM. Between-session ES was predominately "trivial" or "small" for raw data and asymmetries, reinforcing that the values did not change significantly between the sessions. In addition, real asymmetries were seen in some tested metrics, depending on the test. In conclusion, the tested variables presented good levels of between-session reliability and were able to detect real and consistent asymmetries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora A Knihs
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Centre of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, Brazil
| | - Chris Bishop
- Faculty of Science and Technology, London Sports Institute, Middlesex University, London, UK
| | - Haiko B Zimmermann
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Centre of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, Brazil
| | - Juliano Dal Pupo
- Biomechanics Laboratory, Centre of Sports, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, Brazil
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Cavaggioni L, Scurati R, Tosin M, Vernole R, Bonfanti L, Trecroci A, Formenti D. Are Dryland Strength and Power Measurements Associated with Swimming Performance? Preliminary Results on Elite Paralympic Swimmers. Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:94. [PMID: 38668562 PMCID: PMC11054501 DOI: 10.3390/sports12040094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the relationship between dryland tests and swimming performance in elite Paralympic swimmers. Fifteen competitive swimmers (age: 27.4 ± 5.4 years, height: 1.70 ± 6.8 m, body mass: 67.9 ± 9.2 kg; 9 males, 6 females) performed a lat pull-down and a bench press incremental load test to determine maximum power (Pmax), the strength corresponding to maximum power (F@Pmax), and the barbell velocity corresponding to maximum power (V@Pmax) from the force-velocity and power-velocity profiles. These outcomes were also normalized by the athlete's body mass. Swimming performance was carried out from the best result in a 100 m freestyle race registered during an international competition. Lat pull-down F@Pmax was significantly associated with 100 m freestyle chronometric time (ρ = -0.56, p < 0.05), and lat pull-down V@Pmax presented a relationship with mean swimming velocity (ρ = 0.71, p < 0.01). Similarly, bench press F@Pmax and the normalized F@Pmax were significantly related to the mean swimming velocity (ρ = -0.51, ρ = -0.62, p < 0.05). Stepwise multiple regression showed that lat pull-down V@Pmax, bench press normF@Pmax, and V@Pmax accounted for 40.6%, 42.3%, and 65.8% (p < 0.05) of the mean swimming velocity variance. These preliminary results highlighted that simple dryland tests, although with a moderate relationship, are significantly associated with 100 m freestyle swimming performance in elite Paralympic swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Cavaggioni
- Obesity Unit—Laboratory of Nutrition and Obesity Research, Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20145 Milan, Italy
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy; (L.B.); (D.F.)
| | - Raffaele Scurati
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (R.S.); (A.T.)
| | - Massimiliano Tosin
- Italian Paralympic Swimming Federation, 00144 Rome, Italy; (M.T.); (R.V.)
| | - Riccardo Vernole
- Italian Paralympic Swimming Federation, 00144 Rome, Italy; (M.T.); (R.V.)
| | - Luca Bonfanti
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy; (L.B.); (D.F.)
| | - Athos Trecroci
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (R.S.); (A.T.)
| | - Damiano Formenti
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy; (L.B.); (D.F.)
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Dos Santos YS, Carneiro NB, Souza BCDS, Franken M, de Jesus K, de Jesus K. Benefits and limitations of isokinetic force assessments in swimmer's shoulders: A systematic review. J Bodyw Mov Ther 2024; 37:121-130. [PMID: 38432793 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2023.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To indicate the benefits and limitations of the isokinetic test results for the performance of the main shoulder joint movements in swimmers, considering the different competitive levels, swimming techniques, race distances, and sex. METHODS Search on the PubMed, CENTRAL, Medline, LILACS, and SCOPUS databases for the oldest records up to October 2022. Risk of bias, methodological quality, and level of evidence were evaluated based on the NHLBI checklist. RESULTS 29 articles met the criteria and were included in this study. The quality analysis classified three as "good" and 26 as "regular", with a KAPPA index of 0.87. The main benefits found involved assessments of the clinical condition of the shoulder joint complex, relationships with performance, and reliability studies. The limitations found point to the participant's positioning in the instrument, use of angular velocity above 180°/s, and sample size. CONCLUSION The use of the isokinetic dynamometer allows verifying the levels of strength, endurance, balance, and asymmetries among swimmers of different techniques, distances, competitive levels, and sex. Thus, it helps in the analysis and monitoring of the clinical conditions of swimmers' shoulder joints, contributing to the decision-making process of physiotherapists and coaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves Simões Dos Santos
- Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil; Human Performance Studies Laboratory, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Neice Bahia Carneiro
- Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil; Human Performance Studies Laboratory, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Brian Charlesson da Silva Souza
- Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil; Human Performance Studies Laboratory, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Marcos Franken
- Health Sciences Department, Integrated Regional University of Alto Uruguay and the Missions, Rio Grande do Sul, Santiago, Brazil
| | - Kelly de Jesus
- Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil; Human Performance Studies Laboratory, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil
| | - Karla de Jesus
- Faculty of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil; Human Performance Studies Laboratory, Federal University of Amazonas, Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil.
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Raineteau Y, Nicolas G, Bideau B, Bideau N, Pla R. Associations between load-velocity profiling and race parameters of elite swimmers in the 100 and 200m freestyle events. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1326106. [PMID: 38162699 PMCID: PMC10757606 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1326106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Improving swimming performance involves assessments of biomechanical variables of the stroke, and it can be achieved using semi-tethered swimming tests. The aim of this study was thus to investigate the associations between load-velocity (L-V) profiles, from a semi-tethered swimming protocol and race variables in the 100 m and 200 m freestyle events. Methods Eight swimmers completed a L-V profiling protocol consisting of four sprints (25 m, 25 m, 20 m, 15 m) against increasing loads (0.1, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0 kg respectively) with complete recovery between repetitions (>5 min). The L-V linear regression was used to estimate maximal velocity (V0) and body mass normalized load (rL0). Race variables such as clean swimming speed (V), stroke rate (SR), distance per cycle (SL) and stroke index (SI) were assessed from video analysis of 100 m and 200 m freestyle events taking place 3-4 days after the L-V protocol. Results L-V results showed high levels of speed (mean ± SD: 1.87 ± 0.04 m/s) and heavy maximal relative loads (mean ± SD: 38.5 ± 6.51 as % of body mass). Swimmers also achieved high-level performances in the 100 m (mean ± SD time: 51.95 ± 0.75 s) and the 200 m (mean ± SD time: 113.85 ± 2.67 s). For the 100 m events, the maximal relative load showed strong correlation with performance (r = 0.63) whereas trivial correlation was observed for the 200 m events (r = 0.12). SR on the 100 m and the 200 m also showed very strong association with rL0 (r = 0.83) and a strong association with V0 (r = 0.68) respectively. Conclusion The relationships between L-V variables and race variables depend on the distance of the event. However, L-V variables seem to be less related to SR and SL evolutions for the 100 m than in the 200 m event. Moreover, L-V profiles tend to be more related to the 100 m than 200 m freestyle performance. L-V profile should be interpreted taking into consideration the specific physiological and biomechanical constraints of the main events of the swimmer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannis Raineteau
- M2S Laboratory—Laboratoire Mouvement Sport Santé, Université Rennes 2, Rennes, France
- Optimization service, Fédération Française de Natation, Clichy, France
| | - Guillaume Nicolas
- M2S Laboratory—Laboratoire Mouvement Sport Santé, Université Rennes 2, Rennes, France
- MIMETIC-Team, INRIA Rennes Bretagne Atlantique, Rennes, France
| | - Benoit Bideau
- M2S Laboratory—Laboratoire Mouvement Sport Santé, Université Rennes 2, Rennes, France
- MIMETIC-Team, INRIA Rennes Bretagne Atlantique, Rennes, France
| | - Nicolas Bideau
- M2S Laboratory—Laboratoire Mouvement Sport Santé, Université Rennes 2, Rennes, France
- MIMETIC-Team, INRIA Rennes Bretagne Atlantique, Rennes, France
| | - Robin Pla
- Optimization service, Fédération Française de Natation, Clichy, France
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Carvalho DD, Monteiro AS, Fonseca P, Silva AJ, Vilas-Boas JP, Pyne DB, Fernandes RJ. Swimming sprint performance depends on upper/lower limbs strength and swimmers level. J Sports Sci 2023; 41:747-757. [PMID: 37488696 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2023.2239610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
Swimming performance is likely influenced by strength, but differences between butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke and front crawl, as well as between novice and expert swimmers, are unclear. We have examined the associations between sprint performances, upper and lower limb strength, and anthropometric characteristics in 14 (six males and eight females) non-elite and 16 (nine males and seven females) elite-level swimmers. After an anthropometric characterisation, participants performed four 25 m maximal swims (one per technique) with 10 min intervals, right and left shoulder flexion/extension isokinetic testing at 90 and 300º/s angular velocities and three countermovement jumps. Pearson correlation analysis showed that sprint times were moderate-largely negatively correlated with upper and lower limb strength and power (r ± 95%CI = 0.39 ± 0.26-0.77 ± 0.13, p < 0.05). Elite swimmers higher strength levels were associated with longer stroke length in butterfly and front crawl, and with higher stroke rate in backstroke and breaststroke (r ± 95%CI = 0.37 ± 0.32-0.68 ± 0.21; p < 0.05). Butterfly, backstroke and front crawl sprint times were moderate-largely negatively related with arm span (r ± 95%CI = 0.37 ± 0.26, 0.39 ± 0.25 and 0.69 ± 0.17, p < 0.05). The predictive model indicated that higher dry-land strength values distinguished elite from non-elite swimmers (r2 = 0.67-0.81; p < 0.001). This association was not observed per performance level and per sex, confirming that sprint swimming performance levels can be differentiated by dry-land strength testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo D Carvalho
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana Sofia Monteiro
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Fonseca
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - António J Silva
- Research Center in Sport, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Trás-Os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - J Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - David B Pyne
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
| | - Ricardo J Fernandes
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Costa MJ, Santos CC, Ferreira F, Arellano R, Vilas-Boas JP, Fernandes RJ. Association between elite swimmers' force production and 100 m front crawl inter-lap pacing and kinematics. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1205800. [PMID: 37305663 PMCID: PMC10250633 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1205800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to analyse the associations between force production and 100 m front crawl inter-lap pacing and kinematics. Eleven elite male swimmers performed a 100 m front crawl maximal effort to collect 50 m lap time (T50, s) and velocity (v, m·s-1) for pacing, stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL) and stroke index (SI) as kinematic variables. A 30 s tethered effort allowed to determine the peak (Fpeak) and mean force (Fmean) as force production variables. The relative change (Δ) between 50 m laps was also calculated for all measures. A paired sample t-test was used to check differences between laps and Pearson correlation coefficients allowed to quantify the associations between force and remaining variables. The T50 increased from the first to the second lap (ΔT50 = 10.61%, p < 0.01, d = 2.68), while v (Δv = -5.92%, p < 0.01, d = 1.53), SR (ΔSR = -6.61%, p < 0.01, d = 0.45) and SI (ΔSI = -4.92%, p = 0.02, d = 0.45) decreased. SL remained unchanged between laps (ΔSL = 1.07%, p = 0.66, d = 0.08). No associations were found between force production and most of Δ, with the only exception being the reasonable good association between Fpeak and Δv (r = 0.62, p = 0.04). Although both pacing and kinematics fall from the first to the second sections of a 100 m front-crawl effort, the swimmers who exhibit higher Fpeak show a more stable front crawl v between both 50 m laps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mário J. Costa
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP-UP), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Catarina C. Santos
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Francisco Ferreira
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP-UP), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Raul Arellano
- Aquatics Lab, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
| | - J. Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP-UP), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo J. Fernandes
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation, and Intervention in Sport (CIFI2D), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory (LABIOMEP-UP), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Kwok WY, So BCL, Ng SMS. Underwater Surface Electromyography for the Evaluation of Muscle Activity during Front Crawl Swimming: A Systematic Review. J Sports Sci Med 2023; 22:1-16. [PMID: 36876189 PMCID: PMC9982531 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2023.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
This systematic review is aimed to provide an up-to-date summary and review on the use of surface electromyography (sEMG) in evaluating front crawl (FC) swim performance. Several online databases were searched by different combinations of selected keywords, in total 1956 articles were retrieved, and each article was assessed by a 10-item quality checklist. 16 articles were eligible to be included in this study, and most of the articles were evaluating the muscle activity about the swimming phases and focused on assessing the upper limbs muscles, only few studies have assessed the performance in starts and turns phases. Insufficient information about these two phases despite the critical contribution on final swimming time. Also, with the contribution roles of legs and trunk muscles in swimming performance, more research should be conducted to explore the overall muscle activation pattern and their roles on swimming performance. Moreover, more detailed description in participants' characteristics and more investigations of bilateral muscle activity and the asymmetrical effects on relevant biomechanical performance are recommended. Lastly, with increasing attention about the effects of muscles co-activation on swimming performance, more in-depth investigations on this topic are also highly recommended, for evaluating its influence on swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan Yu Kwok
- Gait and Motion Analysis Laboratory, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
| | - Billy Chun Lung So
- Gait and Motion Analysis Laboratory, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong.,Research Institute for Sports Science and Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong
| | - Sheung Mei Shamay Ng
- Gait and Motion Analysis Laboratory, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
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Relationship between Maximum Force-Velocity Exertion and Swimming Performances among Four Strokes over Medium and Short Distances: The Stronger on Dry Land, the Faster in Water? J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2023; 8:jfmk8010020. [PMID: 36810504 PMCID: PMC9944094 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk8010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Evaluating force-velocity characteristics on dry-land is of the utmost importance in swimming, because higher levels of these bio-motor abilities positively affect in-water performance. However, the wide range of possible technical specializations presents an opportunity for a more categorized approach that has yet to be seized. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify feasible differences in maximum force-velocity exertion based on swimmers' stroke and distance specialization. To this scope, 96 young male swimmers competing at the regional level were divided into 12 groups, one for each stroke (butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and front crawl) and distance (50 m, 100 m, and 200 m). They performed two single pull-up tests, 5-min before and after competing in a federal swimming race. We assessed force (N) and velocity (m/s) exertion via linear encoder. There were no significant differences between pre-post maximum force-velocity exertions, despite the decreasing trend. Force-parameters highly correlated with each other and with the swimming performance time. Moreover, both force (t = -3.60, p < 0.001) and velocity (t = -3.90, p < 0.001) were significant predictors of swimming race time. Sprinters (both 50 m and 100 m) of all strokes could exert significantly higher force-velocity compared to 200 m swimmers (e.g., 0.96 ± 0.06 m/s performed by sprinters vs. 0.66 ± 0.03 m/s performed by 200 m swimmers). Moreover, breaststroke sprinters presented significantly lower force-velocity compared to sprinters specialized in the other strokes (e.g., 1047.83 ± 61.33 N performed by breaststroke sprinters vs. 1263.62 ± 161.23 N performed by butterfly sprinters). This study could provide the foundation for future research regarding the role of stroke and distance specializations in modeling swimmers' force-velocity abilities, thus influencing paramount elements for specific training and improvement towards competitions.
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Knihs DA, Bishop C, Zimmermann HB, Dal Pupo J. Interlimb Asymmetries in Swimming and Their Impact on Performance: Evidence From a Scoping Review. Strength Cond J 2023. [DOI: 10.1519/ssc.0000000000000769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Oppermann J, Knechtle B, Seffrin A, Vancini RL, de Lira CAB, Hill L, Andrade MS. Sex Difference in Female and Male Ice Swimmers for Different Strokes and Water Categories Over Short and Middle Distances: A Descriptive Study. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:63. [PMID: 35536463 PMCID: PMC9091067 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00451-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Background Winter swimming developed from a national tradition into a health-improving sport with international competitions. The difference in performance between women and men was thoroughly examined in various sporting disciplines; however, there is little data on winter swimming events. Therefore, this study aims to compare the sex differences in female and male winter swimmers for a distinct stroke over distances of 25 m and 200 m in ice water, freezing water and cold water in the multiple stages of the Winter Swimming World Cup, hosted by the International Winter Swimming Association (IWSA) since 2016. Methods All data included in this study were obtained from the official results of the Winter Swimming World Cup, published on the “International Winter Swimming Association” (IWSA) website. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to compare race time between sexes in different swimming strokes and categories of water. In contrast, the Kruskal–Wallis H test was used to compare differences between swimming strokes or water categories for the same sex. Results For 25 m and 200 m events of the “IWSA World Cup,” male athletes were faster than female athletes, regardless of stroke and water temperature category. However, the effect size of the difference between the sexes was greater in 25 m than in 200 m for all strokes and water temperatures. Swimming speed for the same-sex differed between the swimming stroke in relation to the water temperature category. Head-up breaststroke was found to be the slowest stroke (p < 0.05). Conclusion In water temperatures between − 2° and + 9 °C, men were faster than women in all stages of the “IWSA World Cup,” regardless of the swimming stroke, but the effect size of the difference between the sexes was greater in shorter than in longer events.
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Brito AV, Carvalho DD, Fonseca P, Monteiro AS, Fernandes A, Fernández-Fernández J, Fernandes RJ. Shoulder Torque Production and Muscular Balance after Long and Short Tennis Points. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:15857. [PMID: 36497932 PMCID: PMC9737849 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192315857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Tennis is an asymmetric sport characterized by a systematic repetition of specific movements that may cause disturbances in muscular strength, power, and torque. Thus, we assessed (i) the torque, power, ratio production, and bilateral asymmetries in the shoulder's external and internal rotations at 90 and 180°/s angular velocities, and (ii) the point duration influence of the above-mentioned variables. Twenty competitive tennis players performed external and internal shoulder rotations; an isokinetic evaluation was conducted of the dominant and non-dominant upper limbs before and after five and ten forehands. A higher torque production in the shoulder's internal rotations at 90 and 180°/s was observed for the dominant vs. non-dominant sides (e.g., 63.1 ± 15.6 vs. 45.9 ± 9.8% and 62.5 ± 17.3 vs. 44.0 ± 12.6% of peak torque/body mass, p < 0.05). The peak torque decreased only after ten forehands (38.3 ± 15.8 vs. 38.2 ± 15.8 and 39.3 ± 16.1 vs. 38.1 ± 15.6 Nm, respectively, p < 0.05), but without impacting speed or accuracy. Unilateral systematic actions of tennis players caused contralateral asymmetries, evidencing the importance of implementing compensatory training. The forehand kinematic assessment suggests that racket and wrist amplitude, as well as speed, are important success determinants in tennis.
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Affiliation(s)
- André V. Brito
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport and Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Diogo D. Carvalho
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport and Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Fonseca
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport and Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ana S. Monteiro
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport and Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Aléxia Fernandes
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport and Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Ricardo J. Fernandes
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport and Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
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Cavaggioni L, Rossi A, Tosin M, Scurati R, Michielon G, Alberti G, Merati G, Formenti D, Trecroci A. Changes in Upper-Body Muscular Strength and Power in Paralympic Swimmers: Effects of Training Confinement during the COVID-19 Pandemic. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19095382. [PMID: 35564778 PMCID: PMC9101705 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19095382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this case series was to evaluate the effectiveness of a dry-land home-training program conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic period in Paralympic swimmers. Previous evidence showed the importance of muscular strength and power training for Paralympic swimmers due to the positive relationship between severity of impairment, swimming technique and biomechanics parameters. Specifically, we aimed to analyze: (i) the effects of a customized training regime conducted pre, during and post restrictions on upper-body muscular strength and power (one repetition maximum, mean propulsive velocity, and mean relative propulsive power) compared to a regular gym-based program; (ii) the associations between mean propulsive velocity and load during two upper body exercises in order to estimate the one repetition maximum. Four elite Paralympic swimmers were retrospectively analyzed in upper-body muscular strength, mean propulsive velocity and mean relative propulsive power in bench press and lat pull-down exercises at three time points: T0 (prior the Lockdown period), T1 (immediately after the Lockdown confinement), T2 (sixteen weeks after returning to gym training). Our findings suggest a very likely decrement in one repetition maximum, mean propulsive velocity, and mean relative propulsive power during the Lockdown period compared with the T0 period with a subsequent very likely increment in one repetition maximum after returning to gym training (T2) compared with the lockdown period (T0). Conversely, mean relative propulsive power showed an unclear improvement in all athletes in T2 compared with T1. These results were also corroborated by the Friedman’s test followed by the Dunn’s pairwise comparison that mainly showed a decrement from T0 to T1 (p < 0.05). At the same time, it appears that muscle strength and power could be rapidly restored close to the pre-lockdown levels following an adequate training program in the gym, albeit without significance (p > 0.05). Finally, the close relationship between mean propulsive velocity and load in bench press and lat pull-down exercises was also confirmed in para swimming, making a possible estimation of one repetition maximum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Cavaggioni
- Obesity Unit—Laboratory of Nutrition and Obesity Research, Department of Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, 20145 Milan, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (R.S.); (G.M.); (G.A.); (A.T.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Alessio Rossi
- Department of Computer Science, University of Pisa, 56127 Pisa, Italy;
| | | | - Raffaele Scurati
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (R.S.); (G.M.); (G.A.); (A.T.)
| | - Giovanni Michielon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (R.S.); (G.M.); (G.A.); (A.T.)
| | - Giampietro Alberti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (R.S.); (G.M.); (G.A.); (A.T.)
| | - Giampiero Merati
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy; (G.M.); (D.F.)
- IRCCS Fondazione don Carlo Gnocchi, 20148 Milan, Italy
| | - Damiano Formenti
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, 21100 Varese, Italy; (G.M.); (D.F.)
| | - Athos Trecroci
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy; (R.S.); (G.M.); (G.A.); (A.T.)
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Abstract
The different characteristics of the four swimming strokes affect the interplay between the four limbs, acting as a constraint to the force produced by each hand and foot. The purpose of this study was to analyze the symmetry of force production with a varying number of limbs in action and see its effect on velocity. Fifteen male swimmers performed four all-out bouts of 25-m swims in the four strokes in full-body stroke and segmental actions. A differential pressure system was used to measure the hands/feet propulsive force and a mechanical velocity meter was used to measure swimming velocity. Symmetry index was calculated based on the force values. All strokes and conditions presented contralateral limb asymmetries (ranging from 6.73% to 28% for the peak force and from 9.3% to 35.7% for the mean force). Backstroke was the most asymmetric stroke, followed-up by butterfly, front crawl, and breaststroke. Kicking conditions elicited the higher asymmetries compared with arm-pull conditions. No significant associations were found between asymmetries and velocity. The absence of such association suggests that, to a certain and unknown extent, swimming may benefit from contralateral limb asymmetry.
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Joaquim Baratto de Azevedo O, Knierim Correia C, Soares Pereira G, Prado LS, Roesler H, Pereira SM, Ruschel C. Effect of three different set-up conditions on the propulsive force measures, reliability, and ecological validity during front crawl tethered-swimming. INT J PERF ANAL SPOR 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/24748668.2021.1974182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Otávio Joaquim Baratto de Azevedo
- Aquatic Biomechanics Research Laboratory, College of Health and Sport Science, Santa Catarina State University, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Clara Knierim Correia
- Aquatic Biomechanics Research Laboratory, College of Health and Sport Science, Santa Catarina State University, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Soares Pereira
- Aquatic Biomechanics Research Laboratory, College of Health and Sport Science, Santa Catarina State University, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Luciano Sales Prado
- Sports Training Center-CTE, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Helio Roesler
- Aquatic Biomechanics Research Laboratory, College of Health and Sport Science, Santa Catarina State University, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Suzana Matheus Pereira
- Aquatic Biomechanics Research Laboratory, College of Health and Sport Science, Santa Catarina State University, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Caroline Ruschel
- Aquatic Biomechanics Research Laboratory, College of Health and Sport Science, Santa Catarina State University, Florianópolis, Brazil
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Santos CC, Marinho DA, Neiva HP, Costa MJ. Propulsive forces in human competitive swimming: a systematic review on direct assessment methods. Sports Biomech 2021:1-21. [PMID: 34369855 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2021.1953574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Human propulsive forces are a key-factor to enhance swimming performance, but there is scarce knowledge when using direct assessments. The aim of this review was to analyse the evidence about human propulsive forces in competitive swimming measured by direct assessment methods. A search up to 30 June 2020 was performed in Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus databases. The Downs and Black Quality Assessment Checklist was used to assess the quality index (QI) of the included studies. Out of 2530 screened records, 35 articles met the inclusion criteria. Tethered-swimming and differential pressure sensors allow directly measure propulsive forces. Cross-sectional designs measured peak and mean propulsive force during the front crawl stroke and including men/boys (≥15 years-old) at different competitive levels were mostly reported. Men are more able to show higher propulsive forces than women counterparts. Short- and long-term effects were observed while using dry-land and in-water training programmes. The magnitude of propulsive force is dependent on the type of assessment method, swimming stroke, number of body limbs and gender. While the short-term effects supporting the different training programmes lead to an increase in propulsive force, there is a lack of long-term evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina C Santos
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Daniel A Marinho
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Henrique P Neiva
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Mário J Costa
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, Guarda, Portugal
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Ferreira S, Carvalho DD, Cardoso R, Rios M, Soares S, Toubekis A, Fernandes RJ. Young Swimmers' Middle-Distance Performance Variation within a Training Season. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18031010. [PMID: 33498817 PMCID: PMC7908489 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18031010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The current study aimed to longitudinally evaluate anthropometric, physiological, and biomechanical variables related to middle-distance performance during a 45-week swimming training season. Thirty-four swimmers (age: 12.07 ± 1.14 years) performed a maximum of 400 m front crawl at the beginning (T1) and finish of the first macrocycle (T2, 15 weeks) and the finish of the second (T3, 18 weeks) and third macrocycles (T4, 12 weeks). Time-related variables, stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL), and stroke index (SI) were recorded during the test, and blood lactate ([La]) and glucose ([Glu]) concentrations were measured post-exercise. The time of the 400 m effort decreased after each macrocycle (T2 vs. T1, 7.8 ± 5.6%; T3 vs. T2, 3.7 ± 3.1%; T4 vs. T3, 3.8 ± 3.4%; p < 0.01). Four hundred meter speed changes between T1 and T2 were positively related to variations in [La], [Glu], SL, and SI (r = 0.36–0.60, p < 0.05). Changes between T2 and T3 were related to SI only (r = 0.5, p < 0.05), and modifications between T3 and T4 were associated with SL and SI variations (r = 0.34 and 0.65, p < 0.05). These results indicate that a well-structured year plan including three macrocycles leads to a significant age-group swimming performance improvement, mostly connected with an increase in technical proficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Ferreira
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (S.F.); (D.D.C.); (R.C.); (M.R.); (S.S.)
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Diogo Duarte Carvalho
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (S.F.); (D.D.C.); (R.C.); (M.R.); (S.S.)
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Cardoso
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (S.F.); (D.D.C.); (R.C.); (M.R.); (S.S.)
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Manoel Rios
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (S.F.); (D.D.C.); (R.C.); (M.R.); (S.S.)
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Susana Soares
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (S.F.); (D.D.C.); (R.C.); (M.R.); (S.S.)
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Argyris Toubekis
- School of Physical Education & Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17233 Athens, Greece;
| | - Ricardo J. Fernandes
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal; (S.F.); (D.D.C.); (R.C.); (M.R.); (S.S.)
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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18
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SwimOne. New Device for Determining Instantaneous Power and Propulsive Forces in Swimming. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20247169. [PMID: 33327553 PMCID: PMC7765058 DOI: 10.3390/s20247169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The propulsive forces and instantaneous power that are generated by a swimmer have a great influence on the swimming performance. This works presents a new device, called SwimOne, for measuring propulsive force and estimating the instantaneous power of the swimmer. In addition, the detailed prototype is able to exert a customizable opposition force to the swimmer for training purpose. The conceptual idea is presented by describing the differential equation of the swimmer and the protocol for a factible estimation of the instantaneous power. The variables that are to be measured and estimated are identified and, consequently, the sensor and actuator systems can be selected. The high-level and detailed designs of the prototype are presented together with the protocol that is carried out in order to validate the sensor and actuation systems. The device is able to monitor the variables of interest of the swimmer together with the propulsive force and instant power. Finally, some experiments are carried out providing the results of several participants swimming in crawl, backstroke, butterfly, and breaststroke styles in the presence of different opposition force. The preliminary results show that SwimOne is valid for measuring instantaneous force and power with different loads in swimming.
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