Competition Seriousness and Competition Level Modulate Testosterone and Cortisol Responses in Soccer Players

Does elite European match-play affect salivary immunoglobulin-A and cortisol in soccer players? The influence of playing status and match outcome

Introduction: The aims of this study were to: a) investigate salivary immunoglobulin A (s-IgA) and cortisol (s-Cort) responses to nine competitive fixtures in starting and non- starting soccer players; and b) compare s-IgA and s-Cort responses of starters and non-starters considering match outcome. Methods: Saliva from 19 male outfield players from an elite soccer team (mean ± SD, age 26 ± 4 years; weight 80.5 ± 8.1 kg; height 1.83 ± 0.07 m; body-fat 10.8% ± 0.7%) was collected. Saliva samples were taken on the day before each match (MD-1), 60-min before kick-off (MDpre), 30-min post-match (MDpost), and 72-h post-match (MD+3). There were five wins, one draw and three losses. Results: The mean s-IgA value was found to be significantly lower at MD+3 compared to MDpre and MDpost. s-Cort was significantly higher at MDpost compared to MD-1 and MDpre. When compared to MDpre, a statistically significant decrease in s-Cort was observed at MD+3 compared to MDpost. Starters displayed higher s-Cort values across the nine matches. There was a significant group-by-time interaction for s-Cort. There was a significant increase in s-Cort levels at MDpost compared to MD-1 and from MDpre to MDpost in starting players. At MDpost, starters had significantly higher s-Cort values. s-IgA values of starting and non- starting players following successful and unsuccessful matches did not reveal a significant difference. However, similar analysis of s-Cort in successful matches showed a significant difference between starters and non-starters. s-IgA values at MD-1, MDpre, MDpost and MD+3 in starters and non-starters following successful and unsuccessful matches revealed significant differences at MDpre and MDpost in starters, respectively. Furthermore, s-Cort values at MD-1, MDpre, MDpost and MD+3 in starters and non-starters in successful and unsuccessful matches revealed significant differences at MD+3 in starting players. Discussion: The present study suggests that in elite level soccer players, both starting status and match outcome influence s-IgA and s-Cort responses, particularly starters. Specifically, s-IgA was lower for starters before and after the match following successful outcomes. Moreover, higher s-Cort values were found before the match while lower values occurred after the match for starters in successful matches.

Oxidative Stress and Performance after Training in Professional Soccer (European Football) Players

Vitamins, hormones, free radicals, and antioxidant substances significantly influence athletic performance. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether these biological mediators changed during the season and if this was associated with the rate of improvement in performance after training, assessed by means of a standardized test. Professional male soccer players took part in the study. Two evaluations were performed: the first in the pre-season period and the second at the mid-point of the official season, after about 6 months of intensive training and weekly matches. Blood levels of vitamins D, B12, and folic acid, testosterone and cortisol, free radicals, and antioxidant substances were measured. Two hours after breakfast, a Yo-Yo test was performed. The relationships between the biological mediators and the rate of improvement after training (i.e., the increase in meters run in the Yo-Yo test between the pre-season and mid-season periods) were evaluated by means of a linear mixed models analysis. Results: Eighty-two paired tests were performed. The athletes showed better performance after training, with an increase in the meters run of about 20%. No significant relationships between the vitamin and hormone values and the gain in the performance test were observed. Plasmatic levels of free radicals increased significantly, as did the blood antioxidant potential. An indirect relationship between oxidative stress and the improvement in performance was observed (free radicals β ± SE: = -0.33 ± 0.10; p-value = 0.001), with lower levels of oxidative stress being associated with higher levels of performance in the Yo-Yo test. Monitoring the measures of oxidative stress could be a useful additional tool for coaches in training and/or recovery programs tailored to each player.

Development and Validation of Sensitive, Fast and Simple LC-MS/MS Method to Investigate the Association between Adrenocortical Steroidogenesis and the High Intensity Exercise in Elite Athletes

The very high intensity of exercise accompanied by mental stress triggers adaptive mechanisms associated with adrenocortical steroidogenesis. However, the association between adrenocortical steroidogenesis and the high intensity of exercise in elite athletes is poorly studied. A significant obstacle to solving this complex task is the wide range (4-5 orders) of steroid concentrations in serum and limitations related to the amount of biological samples taken from professional athletes. To solve this task, we have developed and validated a non-trivial approach for targeted serum metabolic profiling based on the use of LC-MS/MS with dual-polarity electrospray ionization. The developed method based on the proposed approach allows for the quantitative determination of 14 stress resistance biomarkers in elite athletes using a small amount of specimen within 8.5 min.

Psychological stress responses to a live performance by professional flamenco dancers

Dance is a high demanding discipline that involves physiological and psychological pressures. The pressure increases when dancers perform in front of an audience that, on a physiological level, can generate hormonal responses similar to those of an athlete before a competition for social status. Low levels of testosterone (T) and high levels of cortisol (C) are related to a decrease in performance and an increase in the risk of injury. Therefore, this study sets out to analyse hormone response patterns in professional flamenco dance performances depending on whether the performances are completed successfully and whether there are differences by sex and professional category. Saliva specimens (2-5 ml) were taken from the participants before and after the performance. Samples were immunoassayed by duplicate to analyze momentary fluctuations in two hormones regularly used in studies with professional athletes. The results showed significant differences in solo dancers' T responses before and after the performance (p < 0.01), suggesting that the dancing role in the show (soloist or corps the ballet) and responsibility over the performance were important modulators to the hormone responses observed.

Biomarkers of post-match recovery in semi-professional and professional football (soccer)

High-level football (soccer) players face intense physical demands that result in acute and residual fatigue, impairing their physical performance in subsequent matches. Further, top-class players are frequently exposed to match-congested periods where sufficient recovery times are not achievable. To evaluate training and recovery strategies, the monitoring of players' recovery profiles is crucial. Along with performance and neuro-mechanical impairments, match-induced fatigue causes metabolic disturbances denoted by changes in chemical analytes that can be quantified in different body fluids such as blood, saliva, and urine, thus acting as biomarkers. The monitoring of these molecules might supplement performance, neuromuscular and cognitive measurements to guide coaches and trainers during the recovery period. The present narrative review aims to comprehensively review the scientific literature on biomarkers of post-match recovery in semi-professional and professional football players as well as provide an outlook on the role that metabolomic studies might play in this field of research. Overall, no single gold-standard biomarker of match-induced fatigue exists, and a range of metabolites are available to assess different aspects of post-match recovery. The use of biomarker panels might be suitable to simultaneously monitoring these broad physiological processes, yet further research on fluctuations of different analytes throughout post-match recovery is warranted. Although important efforts have been made to address the high interindividual heterogeneity of available markers, limitations inherent to these markers might compromise the information they provide to guide recovery protocols. Further research on metabolomics might benefit from evaluating the long-term recovery period from a high-level football match to shed light upon new biomarkers of post-match recovery.

Salivary hormone concentrations and technical-tactical performance indicators in beach volleyball: Preliminary evidence

The present study aimed to investigate (i) differences in salivary testosterone and cortisol concentrations before, during, and after simulated beach volleyball match, depending on match outcome (winning vs. losing); (ii) the relationship between technical-tactical performance indicators in beach volleyball and salivary hormonal concentrations (i.e., testosterone, cortisol). We hypothesized (i) salivary testosterone concentrations would be greater in winners and salivary cortisol would be lower; (ii) testosterone would associate with positive technical-tactical performance and cortisol would associate with negative technical-tactical performance. Sixteen athletes participated in the study and were grouped according to the result of a simulated game (winners: n = 8; losers: n = 8). Salivary hormone concentration of testosterone and cortisol were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (pre-match, post first set, and post-match), and the coefficient of performance and efficiency were used as technical-tactical performance indicators. Regarding testosterone, there was a large effect size for match outcome after the first set (i.e., Winner vs. Losers) and a moderate effect size for the time in winners (pre-match vs. post-match). Regarding cortisol, there was a moderate effect size of time in losers only (pre-match vs. post-match). Moreover, cortisol pre-match was negatively correlated with the offensive performance (attack performance coefficient: r = −0.541; p = 0.030; attack efficiency: r = −0.568; p = 0.022). In conclusion, the effect of match outcome on testosterone and cortisol levels was moderate in winners and losers, respectively. Moreover, resting cortisol concentration appears to be related to a diminished attack technical-tactical performance. However, larger confirmatory studies are required to confirm these data to corroborate winning increases testosterone levels and/or reduces cortisol in a sporting setting.

Effects of Dominance and Sprint Interval Exercise on Testosterone and Cortisol Levels in Strength-, Endurance-, and Non-Training Men

The aim of the study was to investigate the response of testosterone and cortisol to sprint interval exercises (SIEs) and to determine the role of dominance. The experiment was conducted in a group of 96 men, divided into endurance-training, strength-training, and non-training groups. Participants performed SIEs consisting of 5 × 10-s all-out bouts with a 50-s active recovery. Using the passive drool method, testosterone and cortisol concentrations were measured in saliva samples at rest at 10 min pre and 12 min post exercise. Participants’ heart rate (HR) was measured during the whole exercise. Dominance was assessed by the participants before the study; the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was measured immediately after each bout. The study showed that those who trained in endurance and strength sports had significantly lower mean HRs after five acute 10-s interval bouts than those in the non-training group (p = 0.006 and p = 0.041, respectively). Dominance has an inverse relation to changes in HR; however, it has no relation to hormone response. No significant differences were observed in testosterone and cortisol changes in the endurance-training, strength-training, and non-training groups after SIE (p > 0.05), which may indicate that the exercise volume was too low.

Oxidative Stress, Testosterone, Cortisol, and Vitamin D: Differences in Professional Soccer Players of African and Caucasian Origin

BACKGROUND

Under conditions of intense exercise, the production of free radicals and cortisol increases, whereas blood levels of testosterone and vitamin D decrease. The aim of the study was to evaluate the behavior of these parameters, ethnic differences, and their relationships with overtraining.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty professional soccer players were studied. Oxidative stress, testosterone, cortisol, and vitamin D were collected in pre- and mid-competitive season, and their differences in Africans and Caucasians were evaluated.

RESULTS

An increase in oxidative stress was observed in mid-season in both groups, but this was more significant in Africans (386 ± 162.6 vs. 277.8 ± 106.9 UCarr, p = 0.005; 2,965.4 ± 815.8 vs. 2,560.6 ± 608.1 BAP, p = 0.035). Levels of testosterone and vitamin D were higher in August compared to February in all participants; in both months, testosterone levels were higher in Africans (11.5 ± 2.4 vs. 9.1 ± 2.6, p = 0.004; 10.3 ± 1.6 vs. 7.7 ± 2.3, p = 0.000), whereas vitamin D levels were higher in Caucasians (39.4 ± 11.1 vs. 33.4 ± 9.7, p = 0.048; 31.8 ± 9.7 vs. 27.4 ± 9.4, in August and February, respectively). Insufficient/deficient levels of vitamin D were more frequently observed in Africans, but the difference was close to significance only in August.

CONCLUSIONS

Although lower levels of vitamin D and higher levels of cortisol and oxidative stress in mid-season in Africans could have a negative influence on performance, no symptoms of overtraining were observed, probably due to higher levels of testosterone which enable homeostatic balance.

Saliva testing as noninvasive way for monitoring exercise-dependent response in teenage elite water polo players: A cohort study

Excessively increased training volume and/or intensity and competition can lead to development of overtraining syndrome, causing a performance decrement in athletes. Tracking individual response to exercise intensity is crucial for establishing recovery strategies.We assessed the exercise intensity-dependent variability of stress response biomarkers, namely cortisol (C), testosterone (T), s-IgA, and advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), in saliva samples of teenage elite water polo players. Saliva was collected on a day of training match (T1) and a day of competitive match (T2), at morning, before and after match.Cortisol/proteins and testosterone/proteins concentrations decreased throughout day T1, whereas increased throughout day T2. The highest values were measured after match on day T2 (2.5 ± 0.5 vs 14.6 ± 6.3 ng/mg; 0.061 ± 0.024 vs 0.371 ± 0.15 ng/mg, respectively). sIgA/proteins and AOPP/proteins concentrations increased throughout both days, and were higher after T2 match than T1 one (respectively, 1073.0 ± 438.2 vs 71.0 ± 17.3 μg/mg; 78.05 ± 24.2 vs 15.98 ± 3.16 nmol/mg, P = .003). Significant differences between concentrations of different biomarkers recorded on T1 and T2 were found only for AOPP, suggesting an increased oxidative stress on day T2. Free testosterone/cortisol ratio on day T2 was lower than that at morning (0.053 ± 0.021 vs 0.107 ± 0.031), indicating an increased catabolic response after competitive match.A highly significant positive correlation was found between Cortisol/Proteins and Testosterone as well as s-IgA/Proteins on day T1, and between Cortisol/Proteins and AOPP on day T2.In conclusion, we found that different types of activities, such a training or competitive session can affect the hormonal response, immunity, and oxidative stress, thereby modulating athletic performance.Our findings also confirm the usefulness of saliva testing as noninvasive way for monitoring the individual response to changes in exercise intensity in teenage elite water polo players.

Assessment of Body Composition, Lower Limbs Power, and Anaerobic Power of Senior Soccer Players in Portugal: Differences According to the Competitive Level

BACKGROUND

During a soccer game, the most diversified stimuli occur all the time, the physical condition level plays a determinant role, and there may be variations according to the competitive level. In this sense, the present study aimed to verify differences in body composition, lower limbs power, and anaerobic power, comparing senior soccer players of different competitive levels.

METHODS

Participants were 81 players belonging to six soccer teams, aged between 18 and 35 years, with a mean age of 23.14 ± 4.23 years, who were divided into three distinct competitive levels: Elite, Sub-Elite and Non-Elite. The players performed bioimpedance evaluations on a tetrapolarInbody270 scale (body composition), the Countermovement Jump (CMJ) through the ChronoJump (lower limbs power), and Running Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST) (anaerobic power).

RESULTS

Based on the competitive level analysis, we verified that the players present body composition values similar to each other regardless of the competitive level in which they play. Concerning the performance evaluations, we verified that the elite players present higher values of highest jump (p = 0.012; d = 0.76, moderate; and p = 0.022; d = 0.71, moderate) and maximum force produced (p = 0.05; d = 0.64, moderate; and p = 0.002; d = 1.00, moderate), together with higher values of anaerobic power (p < 0.001; d = 2.43, very large; and p < 0.001; d = 2.22, very large), compared to the others.

CONCLUSIONS

We can thus conclude that there is a homogeneity regarding the body composition of soccer players, regardless of their competitive level; in turn, elite players show better performance indicators in all variables.

The Role of Experience, Perceived Match Importance, and Anxiety on Cortisol Response in an Official Esports Competition

The aim of the present study was to analyse the neuroendocrine stress response, psychological anxiety response, and perceived match importance (PMI) between expert and non-expert control gamers in an official competitive context. We analyzed, in 25 expert esports players and 20 control participants, modifications in their somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety, self-confidence, PMI, and cortisol in a League of Legends competition. We found how expert esports players presented higher cortisol concentrations (Z = 155.5; p = 0.03; Cohen’s d = −0.66), cognitive anxiety (Z = 99.5; p = 0.001), and PMI (Z = 50.5; p < 0.001) before the competition than non-experts participants. We found a greater statistical weight in the cognitive variables than in the physiological ones. The results obtained suggest that real competitive context and player’s expertise were factors associated with an anticipatory stress response. The PMI proved to be a differentiating variable between both groups, highlighting the necessity to include subjective variables that contrast objective measurements.

Salivary aldosterone and cortisone respond differently to high- and low-psychologically stressful soccer competitions

Aldosterone and cortisone are released in response to physical and psychological stress. However, aldosterone and cortisone responses in children engaged in physical competition have not been described. We examined salivary aldosterone and salivary cortisone responses among Hong Kongese boys, aged 8-11 years, during (1) a soccer match against unknown competitors (N = 84, high psychological stress condition) and (2) an intrasquad soccer scrimmage against teammates (N = 81, low psychological stress condition). Aldosterone levels increased during the soccer match and intrasquad soccer scrimmage conditions, consistent with the view that aldosterone responds to physical stress. During the soccer match, winning competitors experienced larger increases in aldosterone compared to losing competitors, indicating that the degree of aldosterone increase was attenuated by match outcome. Cortisone increased during the soccer match and decreased during the intrasquad soccer scrimmage. Competitors on teams that resulted in a tie had larger cortisone increases compared to winners or losers. These findings highlight that the degree of cortisone change is related to boy's cognitive appraisal of the competitor type (i.e., teammates vs. unknown competitors) and the competitive nature of the game (e.g., tie). These results shed new light on adrenal hormone mediators of stress and competition during middle childhood.