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Yang S, Zheng X, Hou J, Geng B, Luo L, Zhu C, Liu L, Zhu J. Rural revival: Navigating environmental engineering and technology. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 254:119164. [PMID: 38762005 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.119164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
The necessity for global engineering and technological solutions to address rural environmental challenges is paramount, particularly in improving rural waste treatment and infrastructure. This study presents a comprehensive quantitative analysis of 3901 SCI/SSCI and 3818 Chinese CSCD papers, spanning from 1989 to 2021, using tools like Derwent Data Analyzer and VOSviewer. Our key findings reveal a significant evolution in research focus, including a 716.67% increase in global publications from 1995 to 2008 and a 154.76% surge from 2015 to 2021, highlighting a growing research interest with technological hotspots in rural revitalization engineering and agricultural waste recycling. China and the USA are pivotal, contributing 784 and 714 publications respectively. Prominent institutions such as the Chinese Academy of Sciences play a crucial role, particularly in fecal waste treatment technology. These insights advocate for enhanced policy development and practical implementations to foster inclusive and sustainable rural environments globally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyuan Yang
- Beijing Institute of Metrology, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Xiangqun Zheng
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Jiaqi Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Bing Geng
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Liangguo Luo
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Changxiong Zhu
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Liyuan Liu
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Jie Zhu
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, China.
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2
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Swarthout J, Mureithi M, Mboya J, Arnold BF, Wolfe MK, Dentz HN, Lin A, Arnold CD, Rao G, Stewart CP, Clasen T, Colford JM, Null C, Pickering AJ. Addressing Fecal Contamination in Rural Kenyan Households: The Roles of Environmental Interventions and Animal Ownership. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:9500-9514. [PMID: 38760010 PMCID: PMC11155254 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c09419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
Combined water, sanitation, and handwashing (WSH) interventions could reduce fecal contamination along more transmission pathways than single interventions alone. We measured Escherichia coli levels in 3909 drinking water samples, 2691 child hand rinses, and 2422 toy ball rinses collected from households enrolled in a 2-year cluster-randomized controlled trial evaluating single and combined WSH interventions. Water treatment with chlorine reduced E. coli in drinking water. A combined WSH intervention improved water quality by the same magnitude but did not affect E. coli levels on hands or toys. One potential explanation for the limited impact of the sanitation intervention (upgraded latrines) is failure to address dog and livestock fecal contamination. Small ruminant (goat or sheep) ownership was associated with increased E. coli levels in stored water and on child hands. Cattle and poultry ownership was protective against child stunting, and domesticated animal ownership was not associated with child diarrhea. Our findings do not support restricting household animal ownership to prevent child diarrheal disease or stunting but do support calls for WSH infrastructure that can more effectively reduce household fecal contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna
M. Swarthout
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
| | | | - John Mboya
- Innovations
for Poverty Action, Nairobi 00200, Kenya
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Benjamin F. Arnold
- Francis
I. Proctor Foundation, Department of Ophthalmology and Institute for
Global Health Sciences, University of California,
San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Marlene K. Wolfe
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Emory
University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Holly N. Dentz
- Institute
for Global Nutrition, University of California,
Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Audrie Lin
- Department
of Microbiology and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, California 95064, United States
| | - Charles D. Arnold
- Institute
for Global Nutrition, University of California,
Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Gouthami Rao
- Department
of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Christine P. Stewart
- Institute
for Global Nutrition, University of California,
Davis, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Thomas Clasen
- Gangarosa
Department of Environmental Health, Emory
University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - John M. Colford
- School
of Public Health, Division of Epidemiology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Clair Null
- Mathematica, Washington, District of
Columbia 20002, United States
| | - Amy J. Pickering
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, United States
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Chan
Zuckerberg Biohub San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
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3
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Larson A, Haver S, Hattendorf J, Salmon-Mulanovich G, Riveros M, Verastegui H, Mäusezahl D, Hartinger S. Household-level risk factors for water contamination and antimicrobial resistance in drinking water among households with children under 5 in rural San Marcos, Cajamarca, Peru. One Health 2023; 16:100482. [PMID: 36655146 PMCID: PMC9841353 DOI: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2023.100482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Household water contamination at point of use depends on human, animal and environmental factors embodying all aspects of a One Health approach. This study investigated the association between household factors, the presence of thermotolerant coliform, and the presence of antibiotic resistant bacteria in drinking water among 314 households with children under 5 in Cajamarca, Peru. This study analysed data from a baseline sampling of a randomized controlled trial, including household surveys covering household water management and factors such as household animals, as well as microbiological data from samples collected from drinking water. Data were analysed using generalized linear models. Drinking water samples collected from narrow-mouthed containers were less likely to be contaminated than samples collected from the faucet (OR = 0.55, p = 0.030) or wide mouthed containers. The presence of thermotolerant coliform was associated with owning farm birds, which increased the proportion of contamination from 42.2% to 59.1% (OR = 1.98, p = 0.017) and with animal waste observed in the kitchen area, which increased the prevalence of contamination from 51.4% to 65.6% (OR = 1.80, p = 0.024). Resistance to any antibiotic was higher among pig owners at 60%, relative to non-pig owners at 36.4% (OR = 1.97, p = 0.012) as well as households with free-roaming animals in the kitchen area at 59.6% compared to households without free-roaming animals at 39.7% (OR = 2.24, p = 0.035). Recent child antibiotic use increased the prevalence of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole resistance among E. coli isolates to 22.3% relative to 16.7% (OR = 3.00, p = 0.037). Overall, these findings suggest that water storage in a secure container to protect from in-home contamination is likely to be important in providing safe drinking water at point of use. In addition, transmission of thermotolerant coliform and AMR between domestic animals and human drinking water supplies is likely. Further research should explore transmission pathways and methods to support safe drinking water access in multi-species households.
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Affiliation(s)
- A.J. Larson
- Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru,University of Washington, Seattle, United States,Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - S. Haver
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - J. Hattendorf
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - G. Salmon-Mulanovich
- Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru,Institute for Nature, Earth and Energy at the Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, Lima, Peru
| | - M. Riveros
- Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | - H. Verastegui
- Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru,Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - D. Mäusezahl
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - S.M. Hartinger
- Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru,Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Allschwil, Switzerland,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland,Corresponding author at: Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru.
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Lowe J, Ercumen A, Prottas C, Harris AR. Exploring the determinants and indicators of poultry feces management behaviors in rural Western Uganda. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 834:155202. [PMID: 35421491 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Animal ownership has reported financial and nutritional benefits but has also been associated with enteric and respiratory infections, and inadequate sanitation and hygiene can lead to children touching and ingesting animal fecal matter. We identified key indicators for poultry feces management and investigated their social determinants using data from a baseline survey of a randomized-controlled trial of a poultry management training program in rural Western Uganda. The baseline survey was conducted in the Masindi and Kiryandongo districts of Uganda in September 2019, and data collected from 609 households were used. We evaluated indicators for poultry feces management behaviors using scale development methods, including descriptive statistics, bivariate correlation analyses, and Factor Analysis of Mixed Data. We also investigated social determinants of key poultry feces management behaviors using logistic and multinomial logistic regression models. A significant increase in odds of having free-roaming poultry was found for each additional poultry owned (OR = 1.18, P < 0.001). The odds of a household having an observed enclosure for poultry increased by 5% with each incremental poultry owned (OR = 1.05, P < 0.001), and by 4% with increasing wealth with each additional point on the poverty probability index score (OR = 1.04, P < 0.001). Our results also suggest enclosures are intermittently used and constructing them without further intervention likely will not be sufficient for effectively managing animal fecal contamination. We recommend that future studies on animal feces management measure indicators for corralling and feces disposal practices and evaluate their relationship to enteric pathogen exposure and health outcomes. Insights from this work can inform the development of robust indicators of poultry feces management behaviors that can be used for monitoring and evaluation purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Lowe
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, NC, United States.
| | - Ayse Ercumen
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Resources, NC State University, Raleigh, NC, United States.
| | | | - Angela R Harris
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, NC State University, Raleigh, NC, United States.
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An Overview of Microbial Source Tracking Using Host-Specific Genetic Markers to Identify Origins of Fecal Contamination in Different Water Environments. WATER 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/w14111809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Fecal contamination of water constitutes a serious health risk to humans and environmental ecosystems. This is mainly due to the fact that fecal material carries a variety of enteropathogens, which can enter and circulate in water bodies through fecal pollution. In this respect, the prompt identification of the polluting source(s) is pivotal to guiding appropriate target-specific remediation actions. Notably, microbial source tracking (MST) is widely applied to determine the host origin(s) contributing to fecal water pollution through the identification of zoogenic and/or anthropogenic sources of fecal environmental DNA (eDNA). A wide array of host-associated molecular markers have been developed and exploited for polluting source attribution in various aquatic ecosystems. This review is intended to provide the most up-to-date overview of genetic marker-based MST studies carried out in different water types, such as freshwaters (including surface and groundwaters) and seawaters (from coasts, beaches, lagoons, and estuaries), as well as drinking water systems. Focusing on the latest scientific progress/achievements, this work aims to gain updated knowledge on the applicability and robustness of using MST for water quality surveillance. Moreover, it also provides a future perspective on advancing MST applications for environmental research.
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Lambrecht NJ, Wilson ML, Bridges D, Eisenberg JNS, Adu B, Baylin A, Folson G, Jones AD. Ruminant-Related Risk Factors are Associated with Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infection in Children in Southern Ghana. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2022; 106:513-522. [PMID: 34844207 PMCID: PMC8832919 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.21-0550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Livestock can provide benefits to low-income households, yet may expose children to zoonotic enteropathogens that cause illness and negative long-term health outcomes. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to determine whether livestock-related risk factors, including animal ownership, exposure to animal feces, and consumption of animal-source foods, were associated with bacterial zoonotic enteropathogen infections in children 6-59 months old in Greater Accra, Ghana. Stool samples from 259 children and 156 household chickens were analyzed for atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (aEPEC), Campylobacter jejuni/coli (C. jejuni/coli), Salmonella, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). aEPEC, C. jejuni/coli, STEC, and Salmonella were detected in 45.6%, 11.6%, 4.3%, and 0.8% of children's stool samples, respectively. In adjusted logistic regression models, household ownership of goats or sheep was associated with STEC detection in children (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 4.30 [1.32, 14.08]), as were positive detection of STEC in chicken feces (7.85 [2.54, 24.30]) and frequent consumption of fresh cow's milk (3.03 [1.75, 5.24]). No livestock-related risk factors were associated with aEPEC or C. jejuni/coli infection in children. Our findings suggest that ruminant ownership in southern Ghana may expose children to STEC through household fecal contamination and foodborne routes. The lack of association between livestock risk factors and the more commonly detected pathogens, aEPEC and C. jejuni/coli, warrants further research, particularly to help explain how animal-keeping and sanitation practices affect transmission of fecal pathogens that were highly prevalent in chicken feces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie J. Lambrecht
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan;,Address correspondence to Nathalie J. Lambrecht, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Public Health, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany. E-mail:
| | - Mark L. Wilson
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Dave Bridges
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Joseph N. S. Eisenberg
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Bright Adu
- Department of Immunology, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
| | - Ana Baylin
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan;,Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | - Gloria Folson
- Department of Nutrition, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
| | - Andrew D. Jones
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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7
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Sikder M, Naumova EN, Ogudipe AO, Gomez M, Lantagne D. Fecal Indicator Bacteria Data to Characterize Drinking Water Quality in Low-Resource Settings: Summary of Current Practices and Recommendations for Improving Validity. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18052353. [PMID: 33670869 PMCID: PMC7957662 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18052353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) values are widely used to assess microbial contamination in drinking water and to advance the modeling of infectious disease risks. The membrane filtration (MF) testing technique for FIB is widely adapted for use in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). We conducted a systematic literature review on the use of MF-based FIB data in LMICs and summarized statistical methods from 172 articles. We then applied the commonly used statistical methods from the review on publicly available datasets to illustrate how data analysis methods affect FIB results and interpretation. Our findings indicate that standard methods for processing samples are not widely reported, the selection of statistical tests is rarely justified, and, depending on the application, statistical methods can change risk perception and present misleading results. These results raise concerns about the validity of FIB data collection, analysis, and presentation in LMICs. To improve evidence quality, we propose a FIB data reporting checklist to use as a reminder for researchers and practitioners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Sikder
- Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA; (E.N.N.); (A.O.O.); (M.G.); (D.L.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Elena N. Naumova
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA; (E.N.N.); (A.O.O.); (M.G.); (D.L.)
- Division of Nutrition Epidemiology and Data Science, Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Boston, MA 02111, USA
| | - Anthonia O. Ogudipe
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA; (E.N.N.); (A.O.O.); (M.G.); (D.L.)
| | - Mateo Gomez
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA; (E.N.N.); (A.O.O.); (M.G.); (D.L.)
| | - Daniele Lantagne
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, MA 02155, USA; (E.N.N.); (A.O.O.); (M.G.); (D.L.)
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8
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Nowicki S, deLaurent ZR, de Villiers EP, Githinji G, Charles KJ. The utility of Escherichia coli as a contamination indicator for rural drinking water: Evidence from whole genome sequencing. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0245910. [PMID: 33481909 PMCID: PMC7822521 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0245910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Across the water sector, Escherichia coli is the preferred microbial water quality indicator and current guidance upholds that it indicates recent faecal contamination. This has been challenged, however, by research demonstrating growth of E. coli in the environment. In this study, we used whole genome sequencing to investigate the links between E. coli and recent faecal contamination in drinking water. We sequenced 103 E. coli isolates sampled from 9 water supplies in rural Kitui County, Kenya, including points of collection (n = 14) and use (n = 30). Biomarkers for definitive source tracking remain elusive, so we analysed the phylogenetic grouping, multi-locus sequence types (MLSTs), allelic diversity, and virulence and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) genes of the isolates for insight into their likely source. Phylogroup B1, which is generally better adapted to water environments, is dominant in our samples (n = 69) and allelic diversity differences (z = 2.12, p = 0.03) suggest that naturalised populations may be particularly relevant at collection points with lower E. coli concentrations (<50 / 100mL). The strains that are more likely to have originated from human and/or recent faecal contamination (n = 50), were found at poorly protected collection points (4 sites) or at points of use (12 sites). We discuss the difficulty of interpreting health risk from E. coli grab samples, especially at household level, and our findings support the use of E. coli risk categories and encourage monitoring that accounts for sanitary conditions and temporal variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Nowicki
- School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Zaydah R. deLaurent
- KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Etienne P. de Villiers
- KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Department of Public Health, Pwani University, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - George Githinji
- KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Centre for Geographic Medicine Research-Coast, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Katrina J. Charles
- School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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Trajano Gomes da Silva D, Ebdon J, Okotto-Okotto J, Ade F, Mito O, Wanza P, Kwoba E, Mwangi T, Yu W, Wright JA. A longitudinal study of the association between domestic contact with livestock and contamination of household point-of-use stored drinking water in rural Siaya County (Kenya). Int J Hyg Environ Health 2020; 230:113602. [PMID: 32911124 PMCID: PMC7607227 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Background Emerging evidence suggests close domestic proximity of livestock and humans may lead to microbiological contamination of hands, objects, food and water supplies within domestic environments, adversely impacting public health. However, evidence quantifying the relationship between livestock, domestic animals, humans and microbiological contamination of household stored water remains limited. Aim This longitudinal study aimed to examine the relationship between domestic contact with livestock and domestic animals on microbiological contamination of household Point-of-Use (POU) stored drinking water in rural Kenya and assess the influence of choice of faecal indicator on such associations. Methodology A survey was performed in 234 households in Siaya county, Kenya, to observe presence of livestock (cattle, goats, poultry) and domestic animals (cats, dogs) in household compounds, alongside other risk factors for contamination of POU stored drinking water such as sanitation, storage conditions and hygiene practices. Samples from water sources (e.g. piped, spring/wells, boreholes, surface and rainwater) and from POU storage containers were tested for E. coli and intestinal enterococci. Livestock-related risk factors for water contamination were examined through multinomial regression, controlling for confounders. Results Rainwater was the main POU water source and was found to be highly susceptible to contamination. Multivariate analysis showed greater risk of gross (>100 CFU/100 mL) water contamination (with E. coli) for households where goats were observed, and/or where poultry roosted in proximity to stored household water (relative risk RR = 2.71; p = 0.001 and RR = 2.02; p = 0.012 respectively). Presence of a poultry coop was also associated with elevated intestinal enterococci densities (RR = 4.46; p = 0.001). Associations between contamination and livestock risk factors were thus similar for both bacteria groups, but E. coli counts declined more rapidly following collection from surface waters than enterococci counts (p = 0.024). Conclusion The presence of livestock (particularly goats) and poultry within household compounds increases POU water contamination risk, suggesting the need for improved interventions to address cross-contamination within rural domestic settings. Within Siaya county, more effective community education is needed to raise awareness of POU water quality protection, particularly of rainwater. Poultry and goats are risk factors for household stored water contamination. Poultry are risk factors for both enterococci and E. coli contamination. Attenuation of enterococci in household stored water is lower than for E. coli. Residual free chlorine is mostly too low to prevent stored water recontamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diogo Trajano Gomes da Silva
- School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Cockcroft Building, Lewes Road, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK.
| | - James Ebdon
- School of Environment and Technology, University of Brighton, Cockcroft Building, Lewes Road, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Joseph Okotto-Okotto
- Victoria Institute for Research on Environment and Development (VIRED) International, P.O. Box 6423-40103, Off Nairobi Road, Rabour, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Frederick Ade
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 1578-40100, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Oscar Mito
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 1578-40100, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Peggy Wanza
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 1578-40100, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Emmah Kwoba
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 1578-40100, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Thumbi Mwangi
- Centre for Global Health Research, Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 1578-40100, Kisumu, Kenya
| | - Weiyu Yu
- School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Building 44, Highfield, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Jim A Wright
- School of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Southampton, Building 44, Highfield, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
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