Comparison of Skin Lesions Caused by Ixodes ricinus Ticks and Lipoptena cervi Deer Keds Infesting Humans in the Natural Environment

Tick Bite Granuloma After Incomplete Removal of Ixodes ricinus Tick

Ixodes ricinus (Acari: Ixodidae) ticks infest humans in Europe most frequently. This report describes an interesting case of a persistent inflammatory skin reaction developed in a patient after the incomplete removal of an I. ricinus female tick. A 47-year-old female patient incompletely removed a female I. ricinus tick feeding in the lumbar region for approximately 12 h. After 9 weeks of persistent itching and burning, the skin from the tick feeding site was sampled for histopathological examination. The lesion exhibited the presence of abundant inflammatory infiltrates composed of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and eosinophils, as well as multinucleated macrophages and irregular fibrosis. The histopathological image revealed the presence of a tick bite granuloma. This study indicates that persistent symptoms of an inflammatory reaction may develop after incomplete tick removal, even after a short time of feeding.

Occurrence of Ticks and Tick-Borne Pathogens During Warm Winter-A Snapshot from Central Europe

BACKGROUND

Climate warming and anthropogenic environmental changes impact the spread of ticks and tick-borne pathogens (TBPs). This study investigated the occurrence of ticks and the risk of TBPs infection in urban and rural recreational areas in Eastern Poland at record-high temperatures in winter.

METHODS

Ticks were collected from vegetation using the flagging method. Various types of polymerase chain reactions were applied to detect Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., and Babesia spp. in the studied ticks.

RESULTS

268 ticks were sampled in the four urban/suburban and one rural sites, including 78 Ixodes ricinus specimens and 190 Dermacentor reticulatus ticks. Of the ticks, 49.19% were infected by at least one TBP, including 41.03% of I. ricinus and 63.04% of D. reticulatus specimens. Co-infections with TBPs that involved only I. ricinus were recorded in 6.41% of these ticks.

CONCLUSIONS

The study indicates that hosts are exposed to tick attacks and TBPs infection in Central Europe at high temperatures in winter. The high activity of ticks may increase the incidence of tick-borne diseases in humans and companion animals. The record's importance indicates that practical preventive measures against TBPs should be taken due to weather conditions rather than the season.

Current Tick Control Strategies and Prospects for Using Nanotechnology as an Efficient Alternative-A Review

Ticks pose significant challenges to public and veterinary health, acting as vectors of several diseases that affect animals and humans. Traditional chemical control methods, such as pyrethroids and organophosphates, have led to increasing resistance and environmental contamination, highlighting the need and urgency for alternative strategies. This review explores contemporary approaches to tick control, emphasizing plant-derived acaricides and their integration with nanotechnology. Plant extracts, known for their acaricidal properties, disrupt several biological processes in ticks, reducing reproduction and survival rates. The advent of nanotechnology offers promising advances in increasing the efficacy of these natural extracts. Nanoparticles add properties to the systems where they act by improving the stability, bioavailability, and targeted delivery of plant-derived compounds, potentially overcoming the limitations of traditional acaricides. This synthesis of current knowledge highlights the potential of combining plant extracts with nanotechnology to develop sustainable and effective tick control solutions, addressing issues of acaricide resistance as well as environmental concerns. The review also identifies research gaps and suggests directions for future studies to optimize the application of nanotechnology in tick management.

Detection of Anaplasma phagocytophilum DNA in Deer Keds: Massachusetts, USA

Deer keds (Lipoptena spp. and Neolipoptena ferrisi) are hematophagous ectoparasites that primarily infest white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and other cervids in the United States. The distribution of deer keds in the northeastern United States and the pathogens they harbor remains relatively unexplored. In this study, we examined the geographical distribution and pathogen prevalence of deer keds in Massachusetts by collecting samples from white-tailed deer and testing for tick-borne pathogens. Deer keds were collected across the state, including in four previously unrecorded counties, indicating a wide distribution. Pathogen screening revealed the presence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum DNA in 30% of the keds, but no other pathogens were detected. The medical and biological significance of detecting A. phagocytophilum DNA in deer keds requires future studies. This research provides a baseline for the distribution and pathogen prevalence of deer keds in Massachusetts and highlights the potential of deer keds as sentinels for monitoring deer-associated microbes.

Diversity and Multiple Infections of Bartonella in Red Deer and Deer Keds

Bartonellae are zoonotic pathogens with a broad range of reservoir hosts and vectors. To examine sylvatic Bartonella reservoirs, tissue samples of red deer (Cervus elaphus, n = 114) and their associated deer keds (Lipoptena cervi, n = 50; L. fortisetosa, n = 272) collected in the Czech Republic were tested for the presence of Bartonella using PCR at four loci (gltA, rpoB, nuoG, ITS); PCR sensitivity was increased significantly by using primers modified for the detection of wildlife-associated bartonellae. One-third of the deer and 70% of the deer keds were Bartonella positive; within the tested animal tissues, usually the spleen was positive. The most prevalent Bartonella represents an undescribed species related to isolates from Japanese sika deer and L. fortisetosa. Additionally, B. schoenbuchensis sensu lato and B. bovis were found, together making up 17 genotypes characterized by multi-locus sequence typing, all unique compared to previously published sequences. Nanopore sequencing of selected samples revealed an additional 14 unique Bartonella genotypes, with up to six genotypes co-infecting one deer, highlighting the diversity of ruminant Bartonella. The high COI variety of examined L. cervi and L. fortisetosa suggests L. fortisetosa in central Europe is not a homogenous invasive population.

First report of Lipoptena axis Maa, 1965, from captive cervids in Thailand, based on morphological and molecular data

Deer louse flies (Lipoptena spp.) are hematophagous ectoparasites of cervids. The genus Lipoptena comprises 32 species, some of which are of veterinary importance as vectors of various pathogens, and are also known to attack human hosts. Recently, deer louse flies have been observed during annual checkups of captive cervids at Khon Kaen Zoo in Khon Kaen, Thailand. However, data on their specific identity and prevalence remain limited. This study aims to identify louse fly samples from captive cervids at Khon Kaen Zoo using morphological and molecular analyses. A total of 60 louse flies were collected from 17 captive cervids and identified based on their morphology. Major morphological characteristics, including mesothoracic bristle patterns, abdominal tergal plate bristles, and terminalia structure indicated that the Khon Kaen louse fly is Lipoptena axis Maa, 1965. Phylogenetic analysis of sequences from a portion of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene was performed, which confirmed that L. axis of this study belongs to the cervi group, which is distinct from other groups of Lipoptena species. This study represents the first report of L. axis in Thailand. We provide an updated taxonomic key for the identification of Lipoptena species in the cervi group.

Ecological Repellent Preparations Based on Natural Polymers with the Addition of Essential Oils Acting on Ticks

BACKGROUND

Ticks (Acari: Ixodida) pose a serious medical and veterinary threat as vectors of tick-borne pathogens. The wide variety of tick repellents available on the market primarily consist of synthetic preparations that may disrupt the ecological balance and accumulate in the environment, leading to harmful effects on humans and animals. The aim of the study was to develop an ecological preparation based on natural raw materials (biopolymers) with the addition of a mixture of essential oils that act as tick repellents.

METHODS

The preparations were acquired through the emulsification method, specifically the oil-in-water emulsion technique. The assessment encompassed an analysis of their physicochemical properties, including centrifugal and thermal stability, dynamic viscosity, wetting angle, and conductivity. Additionally, their biodegradation and ecotoxicity profiles were evaluated, as well as their impact on tick behavior.

RESULTS

The preparations exhibited stability, rapid biodegradation, and absence of ecotoxicity. Additionally, they had repellent properties against the two tested species of ticks (Ixodes ricinus and Dermacentor reticulatus).

CONCLUSIONS

Emulsion formulations comprising natural ingredients have significant research potential for combating ticks, thus mitigating the risk of tick-borne diseases in both human and animal populations.

Commercial products are not effective at repelling European deer keds, Lipoptena cervi (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) but may increase mortality after exposure

European deer keds, Lipoptena cervi (Linnaeus, 1758), are hematophagous ectoparasitic flies known to bite cervids and noncervids, including humans. To prevent deer keds from landing and biting hosts, 5 commercially available insect repellents (DEET, IR3535, oil of lemon eucalyptus (OLE), picaridin, and permethrin) and water control were evaluated to determine repellency efficacy and postexposure mortality of deer keds. While there was a significant difference between the groups tested, a post hoc analysis revealed that no treatment was significantly different from the water control. Deer ked survival was different amongst the treatments, with deer keds exposed to permethrin dying much sooner than those exposed to other treatments or control (median survival for permethrin = 0.58 h). Post-hoc pairwise comparisons revealed that deer keds exposed to DEET or IR3535 had similar survival rates (4.82 and 5.15 h, respectively). Still, there were significantly lower survival times for DEET compared to OLE (6.33 h) and picaridin (15.00 h). Deer keds exposed to the water control survived the longest (23.12 h). Overall, deer ked repellency was not significantly different from the control, but permethrin-treated clothes can effectively kill deer keds in a short amount of time, thereby protecting those who recreate outdoors or encounter animals carrying deer keds.

Ecology and phenology of the bat tick Argas (Carios) dewae (Acari: Argasidae)

Although 12 soft tick species (Argasidae) are native to Australia, the ecology of most is poorly known. Argas dewae parasitizes several insectivorous bat species and has been recorded on humans. Therefore, understanding its ecology is crucial for wildlife health management and public health preparedness. To address this knowledge gap, A. dewae populations were monitored from 2 bat hosts (Chalinolobus gouldii and Austronomus australis) using bat boxes at 3 sites in Victoria, Australia, for 28 months (July 2005–December 2007). A phenological profile undertaken for A. dewae revealed that tick load on bat hosts increased throughout winter and peaked in the first month of spring, before collapsing and remaining low throughout the drier late spring and summer periods. There was also further investigation of the relationship between 2 response variables (tick infestation risk and tick load) and a range of explanatory variables (body condition index, sex, age class, bioseason, site, bat density per nest box). In C. gouldii, site was the only significant predictor of A. dewae infestation risk, while load was correlated with several variables including age class, sex, bioseason, roost density and body condition index. This paper also reports the first records of A. dewae from 6 bat species in 3 bat families (Miniopteridae: Miniopterus australis; Molossidae: A. australis; Vespertilionidae: Chalinolobus morio, Myotis Macropus, Vespadelus darlingtonia, Vespadelus regulus) and a second record of A. dewae from a human. The first distribution records are presented for A. dewae in South Australia, the Australian Capital Territory and Queensland.

Analysis of the bacterial communities associated with pupae and winged or wingless adults of Lipoptena fortisetosa collected from cervids in Italy

The hippoboscid Lipoptena fortisetosa Maa, 1965 is a hematophagous ectoparasite of cervids that can bite humans. This fly is expanding its geographical range and is of concern for animal and human health since it can potentially harbour harmful microorganisms. This study was aimed at characterizing the bacterial communities of L. fortisetosa in its different life-cycle stages. Pupae and wingless adults were collected from cervids hunted in Tuscan-Emilian Apennines (central Italy) and pooled into groups of 10 by life stage (30 individual pupae; 1420 individual wingless adults). Winged flies were caught by sweep netting and separated into five pools of 10 insects. After DNA extraction, the bacterial content of each pool was analysed using 16 S metabarcoding. Results revealed that the composition and relative abundance of different taxa greatly differed in the three analysed groups. Wingless adults showed a high abundance of Bartonella (33.07%), which is almost absent in winged flies and pupae. Among the detected pathogens, four genera of concern for human health were found: Bartonella, Moraxella, Mycobacterium and Rickettsia. Interestingly reads similar to Bartonella bovis, Moraxella osloensis and Arsenophonus lipopteni Operational Taxonomic Unit (OTUs) were detected. These findings suggest the possible role of L. fortisetosa as a reservoir of pathogenic microorganisms, confirming the need for further investigation to ascertain its vectorial capacity.

Molecular pathogen screening of louse flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) from domestic and wild ruminants in Austria

BACKGROUND

Hippoboscid flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae), also known as louse flies or keds, are obligate blood-sucking ectoparasites of animals, and accidentally of humans. The potential role of hippoboscids as vectors of human and veterinary pathogens is being increasingly investigated, but the presence and distribution of infectious agents in louse flies is still unknown in parts of Europe. Here, we report the use of molecular genetics to detect and characterize vector-borne pathogens in hippoboscid flies infesting domestic and wild animals in Austria.

METHODS

Louse flies were collected from naturally infested cattle (n = 25), sheep (n = 3), and red deer (n = 12) across Austria between 2015 and 2019. Individual insects were morphologically identified to species level and subjected to DNA extraction for molecular pathogen screening and barcoding. Genomic DNA from each louse fly was screened for Borrelia spp., Bartonella spp., Trypanosomatida, Anaplasmataceae, Filarioidea and Piroplasmida. Obtained sequences of Trypanosomatida and Bartonella spp. were further characterized by phylogenetic and haplotype networking analyses.

RESULTS

A total of 282 hippoboscid flies corresponding to three species were identified: Hippobosca equina (n = 62) collected from cattle, Melophagus ovinus (n = 100) from sheep and Lipoptena cervi (n = 120) from red deer (Cervus elaphus). Molecular screening revealed pathogen DNA in 54.3% of hippoboscids, including infections with single (63.39%), two (30.71%) and up to three (5.90%) distinct pathogens in the same individual. Bartonella DNA was detected in 36.9% of the louse flies. Lipoptena cervi were infected with 10 distinct and previously unreported Bartonella sp. haplotypes, some closely associated with strains of zoonotic potential. DNA of trypanosomatids was identified in 34% of hippoboscids, including the first description of Trypanosoma sp. in H. equina. Anaplasmataceae DNA (Wolbachia spp.) was detected only in M. ovinus (16%), while < 1% of the louse flies were positive for Borrelia spp. and Filarioidea. All hippoboscids were negative for Piroplasmida.

CONCLUSIONS

Molecular genetic screening confirmed the presence of several pathogens in hippoboscids infesting domestic and wild ruminants in Austria, including novel pathogen haplotypes of zoonotic potential (e.g. Bartonella spp.) and the first report of Trypanosoma sp. in H. equina, suggesting a potential role of this louse fly as vector of animal trypanosomatids. Experimental transmission studies and expanded monitoring of hippoboscid flies and hippoboscid-associated pathogens are warranted to clarify the competence of these ectoparasites as vectors of infectious agents in a One-Health context.

The New Haplotypes of Bartonella spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi Sensu Lato Identified in Lipoptena spp. (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) Collected in the Areas of North-Eastern Poland

Deer keds are hematophagous ectoparasites (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) that mainly parasitize Cervidae. These flies are particularly important for animal health due to the occurrence of numerous pathogenic microorganisms. They may also attack humans and their bites may cause allergenic symptoms. The aim of the study was to identify the molecular characteristics of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato and Bartonella spp. pathogens detected in Lipoptena spp. sampled both from the hosts and from the environment. For identification of Bartonella spp and B. burgdorferi s. l., the primers specific to the rpoB and flaB gene fragments were used, respectively. The overall prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.l. DNA in Lipoptena cervi was 14.04%, including 14.8% infection in the tested group of winged specimens. The overall prevalence of Bartonella spp. was 57.02%. The presence of these bacteria was detected in 53.5% of specimens of L. cervi and 75.7% of L. fortisetosa. The phylogenetic analysis showed five new haplotypes of the rpoB gene of Bartonella sp. isolated from L. cervi/Lipoptena fortisetosa. We also identified one new haplotype of B. afzelii and three haplotypes of B. burgdorferi isolated from winged specimens of L. cervi. This is the first study to detect the genetic material of B. burgdorferi s.l. in L. cervi in Poland and the first report on the identification of these bacteria in host-seeking specimens in the environment.

Risk of Attacks by Blackflies (Diptera: Simuliidae) and Occurrence of Severe Skin Symptoms in Bitten Patients along the Eastern Border of the European Union

The components of blackfly (Diptera: Simuliidae) saliva secreted during feeding on humans and animals induce various pathological reactions manifested by skin lesions and systemic symptoms. In this study, we describe 43 cases of severe skin lesions induced by blackfly bites and analyze their potential causes. Based on the results of a survey of 418 patients, we identified periods with risk of blackfly attacks and their environmental determinants in the eastern part of the European Union. Especially strong inflammatory reactions after blackfly bites were reported in patients with concomitant cardiovascular diseases (mainly with venous insufficiency), metabolic diseases, and bacterial infections. Enhanced symptoms of simuliosis were also observed in other patients attacked by these insects only once or repeatedly. The greatest number of blackfly attacks in the study area is recorded from May to July, with a peak in June (38.73%) in the afternoon (37.10%) and evening (33.03%), when patients are in fields, forests, or their households. The case analysis indicates interactions of various factors in the development of severe inflammatory reactions in patients bitten by blackflies. Therefore, it is recommended that subjects exposed to the presence of blackflies during their work or rest should limit the length of their stay in a vulnerable environment during the highest seasonal and daily activity of these insects. It is also necessary to take measures to reduce the number of blackflies and popularize methods for prophylaxis of their attacks.

Distribution of Deer Keds (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) in Free-Living Cervids of the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines, Central Italy, and Establishment of the Allochthonous Ectoparasite Lipoptena fortisetosa

Simple Summary

In recent years, the increased presence of wildlife in habitats close to urban settlements has raised concerns about the risk of pathogen transmission from wild animals to humans due to the spread of different parasites. For this reason, a survey aimed at describing the dispersal and parasitism level of two cervid ectoparasites was carried out in the northern Apennines, in central Italy. The presence of two hippoboscids, the autochthonous Lipoptena cervi and allochthonous L. fortisetosa, native to Eastern Asia and recently recorded in Italy, were assessed on their main host species (red deer, fallow deer, and roe deer), considering host sex and age. The alien species L. fortisetosa was found to be widespread in the study area, most likely competing with L. cervi. Moreover, red deer seemed to be the favored host of both flies, with differences in sex and age class preferences. This study demonstrated the importance of regularly monitoring the populations of these parasites, especially the invasive species, due to the risks to human health, as these insects are potential vectors of pathogens.

Abstract

Lipoptena fortisetosa and L. cervi are hematophagous ectoparasites belonging to the Hippoboscidae family and preferentially living on cervids. In recent years, they have received specific attention due to the great increase in the abundance of their host species, and to their medical and veterinary importance as possible vectors of pathogens harmful to humans and animals. The aim of this study was to investigate the parasitism level of both of these flies on their main hosts in Italy, which are red deer, fallow deer, and roe deer, and to highlight a possible preference for a species, sex, or age class among the hosts. Deer keds were collected by examining 326 cervids hunted in the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines. Outcomes showed that L. fortisetosa has greatly spread throughout the study area, where it competes with the autochthonous L. cervi. Moreover, red deer was the favored host species of both ectoparasites, while different preferences for host sex and age classes were observed in the two hippoboscids. The regular monitoring of deer ked populations, especially the allochthonous L. fortisetosa, which is continuously spreading in Europe, is recommended to expand the knowledge on these parasitic species that are potentially dangerous to public health.

Two New Haplotypes of Bartonella sp. Isolated from Lipoptena fortisetosa (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) in SE Poland

Simple Summary

Lipoptena fortisetosa is a hematophagous ectoparasite of game animals feeding accidentally on companion animals and humans. Since the presence of numerous pathogenic microorganisms has been described in this species, monitoring its geographic distribution is of great epidemiological importance. To the best of our knowledge, we present two new haplotypes of Bartonella sp. isolated from L. fortisetosa in south-eastern Poland and confirm the presence of this invasive species in Lublin Voivodeship since 2013.

Abstract

Insects of the genus Lipoptena are parasitic arthropods with a broad host range. Due to the type of parasitism (hematophagy), their potential role as vectors of pathogens, i.e., Bartonella sp., Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., and Borrelia burgdorferi is considered. As the range of their occurrence has been changing dynamically in recent years and infestations of humans have increasingly been reported, these organisms are now the subject of numerous studies. Our research aimed to present the molecular characteristics of Bartonella sp. detected in Lipoptena fortisetosa parasitizing wild cervids in south-eastern Poland. Adults of Lipoptena spp. were collected from carcasses of roe deer and red deer between spring and autumn in 2013. The PCR method was used to detect Bartonella sp. in the insects. We report two new haplotypes of the rpoB gene of Bartonella sp. isolated from L. fortisetosa feeding on wild cervids in south-eastern Poland and the presence of this invasive ectoparasitic species in the studied area since 2013. Phylogenetic analyses of newly obtained Bartonella sp. haplotypes confirmed their unique position on the constructed tree and network topology. The rpoB gene sequences found belonging to lineage B support the view that this phylogenetic lineage represents a novel Bartonella species.

Molecular Characterization of Lipoptena fortisetosa from Environmental Samples Collected in North-Eastern Poland

Simple Summary

Lipoptenafortisetosa is an invasive, hematophagous insect, which lives on cervids and continues to spread across Europe. The species originated from the Far East and eastern Siberia. Besides wild animals, these ectoparasites can attack humans, companion animals, and livestock. These insects may also play a role in transmitting infectious diseases. The objective of this study was to confirm the presence of L.fortisetosa in north-eastern Poland and to characterize the examined population with the use of molecular methods. Deer keds were collected from six natural forests in the region of Warmia and Mazury. DNA of L.fortisetosa was extracted and subjected to molecular studies. Two species of deer keds (Lipoptenacervi and L.fortisetosa) were obtained in each location during field research. There were no differences in the sex distribution of these two ectoparasite species. During the research, more L.cervi than L.fortisetosa specimens were obtained. The studied insects were very closely related to specimens from Lithuania, the Czech Republic, and Japan. Our study indicates various ectoparasite lineages, and such research contributes to the improvement of basic knowledge on the distribution, genetic structure, and variability of the invasive ked fly L. fortisetosa.

Abstract

Recent years have witnessed an increase in the population of Lipoptenafortisetosa in Central Europe. The genetic profile of this ectoparasite has not been studied in Poland to date. The aim of the present study was to confirm the presence of L.fortisetosa in north-eastern Poland and to characterize the examined population with the use of molecular methods. Deer keds were collected between June and July 2019 in six natural, mixed forests. A fragment of the rRNA 16S gene was used as a marker to identify L.fortisetosa by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). DNA samples were sequenced in the last step. Six new locations of L. fortisetosa were confirmed. No significant differences were observed in the sex ratios of L. cervi and L. fortisetosa (L. cervi p-value = 0.74; L. fortisetosa p-value = 0.65). Significant differences were noted between the total size of L. cervi and L. fortisetosa populations (p-value < 0.001). The similarity to GenBank sequences ranged from 95.56% to 100%. The obtained nucleotide sequences were very closely related to L. fortisetosa sequences from Lithuania, the Czech Republic, and Japan. Molecular analyses revealed considerable genetic diversity, which could indicate that various ectoparasite lineages have spread throughout Europe.

An Epidemiological Survey Regarding Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases among Livestock Owners in Punjab, Pakistan: A One Health Context

Recent global changes have led to an increase in the spread of ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) affecting domestic ruminants and humans, with an annual loss of US $13.9–$18.7 billion. The current study determined the perception and practices of livestock farmers regarding tick infestation. A total of 112 livestock farms were surveyed in Punjab, Pakistan, among which animals from 42 (37.5%) farms were infested with ticks. Only 28.6% (n = 32) of the dairy farmers were consulting veterinarians for ticks control, while 86.7% (n = 97) of the respondents did not consider biosecurity measures in the control of tick transmission. Most of the respondents, 71.4% (n = 80), did not consider manual tick removal from their animals (i.e., by hand, followed by physically crushing) as a risky practice for spreading zoonotic diseases. Improper disposal of bottles of acaricides in the farm drainage was also observed, putting the environment and aquatic life at risk. These wrong practices may contribute to high disease burdens and economic losses, increasing the possibility of transmission of zoonotic TBDs and pollution of the environment. Therefore, an integrated One Health approach is required for the control of TBDs through environmentally friendly approaches.

Molecular Detection of Selected Pathogens with Zoonotic Potential in Deer Keds (Lipoptena fortisetosa)

Deer keds are obligatory hematophagous ectoparasites of birds and mammals. Cervids serve as specific hosts for these insects. However, ked infestations have been observed in non-specific hosts, including humans, companion animals, and livestock. Lipoptena fortisetosa is a weakly studied ectoparasite, but there is evidence to indicate that it continues to spread across Europe. The existing knowledge on deer keds' impact on wildlife is superficial, and their veterinary importance is enigmatic. Lipoptena fortisetosa is a species with vectorial capacity, but potential pathogen transmission has not been assessed. The objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of selected pathogens in L. fortisetosa collected from cervids and host-seeking individuals in the environment. Out of 500 acquired samples, 307 (61.4%) had genetic material from at least one tested pathogen. Our research suggests that L. fortisetosa may be a potential vector of several pathogens, including A. phagocytophilum, Babesia spp., Bartonella spp., Borellia spp., Coxiella-like endosymbionts, Francisiella tularensis, Mycoplasma spp., Rickettsia spp., and Theileria spp.; however, further, more extensive investigations are required to confirm this. The results of the study indicate that keds can be used as biological markers for investigating the prevalence of vector-borne diseases in the population of free-ranging cervids.

Skin Lesions and Systemic Reactions in Humans Infested by Blackflies (Diptera: Simullidae) in Recreational Areas in Southeastern Poland

Due to their mass occurrence in some environments and high aggressiveness, blackflies (Simulium spp.) represent the most bothersome arthropods attacking humans. In this study, we describe the medical effects of blackfly infestations in humans in southeastern Poland. Local and systemic reactions to blackfly bites were monitored in 418 patients (61.24% of females and 38.76% of males) of medical centers. Only skin lesions at the site of the bites were found in 88.52% of the patients, whereas accompanying systemic reactions were diagnosed in 11.48%. The most common signs observed in the area of the bites were pruritus (94.74%), burning (55.02%), edema (44.02%), and erythema (40.91%). The skin lesions, which were most often grouped small papules and papular and purpuric lesions with a varied range, typically persisted for several days, or for several weeks in some patients. Statistical analyses confirmed that the persistence of the skin lesions did not depend on the sex of the patients and the number of blackfly infestations. The systemic reactions to the components of the blackfly saliva were manifested by headache, increased body temperature, arthralgia, lymphadenopathy, and menstrual disorders in the females. The patients were most often attacked simultaneously by many blackflies on exposed parts of the body, mainly the upper limb, lower limb, head, and neck areas. The investigations indicate that blackflies are an important etiological factor of dermatitis and other symptoms in humans; hence, they should be considered in clinical diagnosis.

Tick Preventive Behaviors and Practices Adopted by Medical Students from Poland, Germany, and Thailand in Relation to Socio-Demographic Conditions and Their Knowledge of Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases

Given the high medical importance of ticks, we analyzed the most common preventive behaviors and practices adopted by medical students from Poland, Germany, and Thailand, and the level of their knowledge of ticks and tick-borne diseases. A survey consisting of 19 questions was conducted among 636 randomly selected students. The study showed that the Polish and German students preferred inspection of the body on their return home (86.9% and 63.5%, respectively) and wearing protective clothes (79.8% and 32.3%, respectively) as part of prophylaxis. The Thai students most often chose wearing protective clothes (54.7%) and preventive behavior in tick habitats (42.7%). Approximately 7% of the Polish medical students and as many as 22% of the German and Thai respondents did not use any means of prevention. Our analyses suggest that the use of preventive methods and respondents' behaviors depend on socio-demographic factors and the level of health education. The insufficient practical implementation of tick prevention measures by the medical students suggests a need for verification of health education programs in schools as well as effective popularization and educational activities. It is also necessary to develop a public health protection strategy against the effects of tick bites.