1
|
Hartley AA, Hartley JT. Secular Changes in Masters Swimming Performances: A 40-Year Follow Up. Exp Aging Res 2024; 50:522-536. [PMID: 37409889 DOI: 10.1080/0361073x.2023.2233367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Archival records of US Masters Swimming performances were examined for changes between 1981 and 2021. Both national records and top 10 swimmers were used. Substantial secular changes were found averaging 0.52%/yr, with women improving more than men and with improvements in national records greater than in the top 10. Performances by women in 2021 were at parity (national records) or near parity (top 10) with men in 1981. The results indicate that secular effects must be considered along with longitudinal age-related changes and cross-sectional cohort effects in interpreting age differences in physiological function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alan A Hartley
- Department of Psychology, Claremont McKenna College, Claremont, USA
| | - Joellen T Hartley
- Department of Psychology, California State University, Long Beach, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Born DP, Stöggl T, Lorentzen J, Romann M, Björklund G. Predicting future stars: Probability and performance corridors for elite swimmers. J Sci Med Sport 2024; 27:113-118. [PMID: 37968181 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2023.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 09/21/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To evaluate the new age groups of the World Junior Championships in swimming from a scientific perspective, establish benchmarks and performance corridors that predict success at peak performance age and compare performance corridors between men and women and short-, middle-, and long-distance freestyle races. DESIGN Longitudinal big data analysis. METHODS In total, 347,186 annual best times of male (n = 3360, 561 ± 177 Swimming Points) and female freestyle swimmers (n = 2570, 553 ± 183 Swimming Points) were collected across all race distances at peak performance age and retrospectively analyzed throughout adolescence. Cumulative Poisson distribution was used to calculate probabilities of becoming world-class finalist, international-class, or national-class swimmer for each age group. Performance corridors were expressed relative to the World Record and compared between performance levels, sex, race distances, and age groups with a 2-way analysis of variance. RESULTS Females are required to swim faster relative to the World Record at a younger age and show earlier performance plateaus than males at national and international levels. Additionally, world-class long-distance finalists show higher Swimming Points earlier in their career compared to short-distance swimmers. This effect is more distinctive in females than males. CONCLUSIONS Based on the sex-specific performance corridors and developments, the newly aligned age groups for the World Junior Championships are questionable regarding long-term athlete development. Based on race times from 131 nations, the present benchmarks provide valid international normative values to predict success chances at peak performance age and guide young swimmers along their talent pathway.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis-Peter Born
- Swiss Swimming Federation, Section for High-Performance Sports, Switzerland; Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Department for Elite Sport, Switzerland.
| | | | | | - Michael Romann
- Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Department for Elite Sport, Switzerland
| | - Glenn Björklund
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Sorgente V, Lopez-Hernandez A, Minciacchi D, González Ravé JM. Diving into Recovery. The Effects of Different Post-Competition Protocols for Enhancing Physio-Psychological Parameters in National Level Youth Swimmers. J Sports Sci Med 2023; 22:739-747. [PMID: 38045753 PMCID: PMC10690518 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2023.739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to elucidate whether a specific approach regarding active swimming recovery could better promote psycho-physiological recovery right after competing in a high-level swimming race. To achieve this, we recruited 50 national level youth swimmers, randomly and equally assigning them to two groups, named "experimental" and "coach prescribed". Each group performed a specific post-competition recovery protocol, consisting of different swimming paces, rest times, self-management of the exercises. We gathered data about blood lactate (BL), heart rate (HR), and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) at two different moments, the first moment right after the swimming competition (named post-competition phase), the second moment right after swimming the respective recovery protocol assigned (named post-recovery phase). A mixed MANOVA with Tukey HSD post-hoc analysis revealed no significant differences between the experimental and coach-prescribed groups in BL, HR, and RPE at the post-competition phase. At the post-recovery phase, however, the experimental group presented lower BL levels than the coach-prescribed group (2.40 ± 1.18 vs. 4.29 ± 2.07 mmol/L, p < 0.05). Finally, we found no interaction of swimming race ranking on recovery capacities. We conclude that for immediate improvement of BL in a wide range of high-level swimmers, an efficient recovery protocol should consist of several paces, high volumes, fixed and short rest times, whereas the widely popular self-managed, lower intensity approach does not seem as equally effective. Our study advances the development of novel recommendations for optimizing immediate fatigue management in competitive swimming.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Sorgente
- Kinesiology and Motor Control (Ki.Mo.Co.) Laboratory, Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Italy
| | | | - Diego Minciacchi
- Kinesiology and Motor Control (Ki.Mo.Co.) Laboratory, Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, Italy
| | - José María González Ravé
- Sport Training Laboratory, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Castilla-La Mancha, Toledo, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hunter SK, S Angadi S, Bhargava A, Harper J, Hirschberg AL, D Levine B, L Moreau K, J Nokoff N, Stachenfeld NS, Bermon S. The Biological Basis of Sex Differences in Athletic Performance: Consensus Statement for the American College of Sports Medicine. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:2328-2360. [PMID: 37772882 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Biological sex is a primary determinant of athletic performance because of fundamental sex differences in anatomy and physiology dictated by sex chromosomes and sex hormones. Adult men are typically stronger, more powerful, and faster than women of similar age and training status. Thus, for athletic events and sports relying on endurance, muscle strength, speed, and power, males typically outperform females by 10%-30% depending on the requirements of the event. These sex differences in performance emerge with the onset of puberty and coincide with the increase in endogenous sex steroid hormones, in particular testosterone in males, which increases 30-fold by adulthood, but remains low in females. The primary goal of this consensus statement is to provide the latest scientific knowledge and mechanisms for the sex differences in athletic performance. This review highlights the differences in anatomy and physiology between males and females that are primary determinants of the sex differences in athletic performance and in response to exercise training, and the role of sex steroid hormones (particularly testosterone and estradiol). We also identify historical and nonphysiological factors that influence the sex differences in performance. Finally, we identify gaps in the knowledge of sex differences in athletic performance and the underlying mechanisms, providing substantial opportunities for high-impact studies. A major step toward closing the knowledge gap is to include more and equitable numbers of women to that of men in mechanistic studies that determine any of the sex differences in response to an acute bout of exercise, exercise training, and athletic performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra K Hunter
- Exercise Science Program, Department of Physical Therapy, and Athletic and Human Performance Center, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI
| | | | - Aditi Bhargava
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA
| | - Joanna Harper
- Loughborough University, Loughborough, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Angelica Lindén Hirschberg
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, and Department of Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, SWEDEN
| | - Benjamin D Levine
- Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Texas Health Presbyterian Hospital Dallas, and the Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX
| | - Kerrie L Moreau
- Department of Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, and Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Aurora, CO
| | - Natalie J Nokoff
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Endocrinology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Nina S Stachenfeld
- The John B. Pierce Laboratory and Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Stéphane Bermon
- Health and Science Department, World Athletics, Monaco and the LAMHESS, University Côte d'Azur, Nice, FRANCE
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Oberlin DJ. Sex differences and athletic performance. Where do trans individuals fit into sports and athletics based on current research? Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1224476. [PMID: 37964771 PMCID: PMC10641525 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1224476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
There are well known sex differences in parameters of physical fitness/performance due to changes occurring during sexual development. Thus, many sport and athletic events have regulations separating male and female participants. However, the inclusion or exclusion of transgender individuals in athletics has recently received outsized attention despite relatively few cases of transgender athletes. When determining which athletic gender category trans individuals should be permitted to compete in, it is important to understand the level of physical fitness/performance these individuals possess relative to their cisgender counterparts. Unfortunately, there are few studies investigating this topic, and several complications that confound this research. The current review seeks to discuss sex and gender as concepts, review sex differences in fitness/performance and how they develop, and then, consider how current evidence suggests that trans individuals compare to cis individuals. Finally, this review seeks to offer considerations for whether trans individuals should be excluded from sports and athletics, and how future research should proceed to better understand this marginalized population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D. J. Oberlin
- Department of Exercise Sciences and Recreation, City University of New York, Lehman College, Bronx, NY, United States
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Rudnik DM, Rejman M, Vilas-Boas JP. The kinematic profile of ventral swimming start: sex diversity. Front Physiol 2023; 14:1157359. [PMID: 37593236 PMCID: PMC10427864 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1157359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been suggested that sex distinctions in physiology may affect the swimming performance of each sex differently. Yet, sex-based performance dependency has not been taken into consideration by most of the researchers evaluating swimming start. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to determine the effect of sex heterogeneity on the spatiotemporal characteristics of swimming start by investigating the determinants of its performance. A total of fifty-two international-level swimmers (thirty females and twenty-two males) performed three repetitions of the kick-start up to the 15-m mark. During trials, data were collected using video cameras and instrumented starting block. To search for evidence of differences between the two groups, the one-way ANOVA was conducted. Pearson's correlation coefficients were calculated between measurements widely used to describe overall starting performance and selected kinematical variables of swimming start. A sex effect was exposed for temporal variables describing all swimming start phases (p ≤ 0.015). Male swimmers, by spending less time during the push-off from the starting block (p = 0.002; η p 2 = 0.18), reaching higher take-off velocity (p < 0.001; η p 2 = 0.29), traveling longer distances during flight (p < 0.001; η p 2 = 0.40), and swimming faster in the water phase (p < 0.001; η p 2 = 0.40), took starting advantage over their female counterparts. Consequently, performance measures such as 5-m, 10-m, and 15-m start times indicated that male participants were faster than females (p < 0.001; η p 2 ≥ 0.40). Only in the group of male swimmers a significant correlation between variables describing overall starting performance (5-m, 10-m, and 15-m times), and variables commonly highlighted as starting performance determining factors (block phase duration, take-off horizontal velocity, and flight distance) was found. The current study shows that the spatiotemporal variables of swimming start, the relation between them as well as overall starting performance, vary by sex. Consequently, the requirement of sex factor and its heterogeneity effect should be included not only in detailed characteristics of separate variables but also in all approaches undertaken. Those findings seem to play a crucial role mainly in swimming start evaluations in post-pubertal age groups of swimmers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daria Malgorzata Rudnik
- Department of Swimming, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
- Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Marek Rejman
- Department of Swimming, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport, Wroclaw University of Health and Sport Sciences, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Joao Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Center of Research, Training, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Porto Biomechanics Laboratory, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kwok WY, So BCL, Ng SMS. Underwater Surface Electromyography for the Evaluation of Muscle Activity during Front Crawl Swimming: A Systematic Review. J Sports Sci Med 2023; 22:1-16. [PMID: 36876189 PMCID: PMC9982531 DOI: 10.52082/jssm.2023.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
This systematic review is aimed to provide an up-to-date summary and review on the use of surface electromyography (sEMG) in evaluating front crawl (FC) swim performance. Several online databases were searched by different combinations of selected keywords, in total 1956 articles were retrieved, and each article was assessed by a 10-item quality checklist. 16 articles were eligible to be included in this study, and most of the articles were evaluating the muscle activity about the swimming phases and focused on assessing the upper limbs muscles, only few studies have assessed the performance in starts and turns phases. Insufficient information about these two phases despite the critical contribution on final swimming time. Also, with the contribution roles of legs and trunk muscles in swimming performance, more research should be conducted to explore the overall muscle activation pattern and their roles on swimming performance. Moreover, more detailed description in participants' characteristics and more investigations of bilateral muscle activity and the asymmetrical effects on relevant biomechanical performance are recommended. Lastly, with increasing attention about the effects of muscles co-activation on swimming performance, more in-depth investigations on this topic are also highly recommended, for evaluating its influence on swimmers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wan Yu Kwok
- Gait and Motion Analysis Laboratory, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
| | - Billy Chun Lung So
- Gait and Motion Analysis Laboratory, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong.,Research Institute for Sports Science and Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong
| | - Sheung Mei Shamay Ng
- Gait and Motion Analysis Laboratory, Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Pan Q, Zhu R, Qiu J, Cai G. Construction of an anthropometric discriminant model for identification of elite swimmers: an adaptive lasso approach. PeerJ 2023; 11:e14635. [PMID: 36643641 PMCID: PMC9835708 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Anthropometric characteristics are important factors that affect swimming performance. The aim of this study is to build a discriminant model using anthropometric factors to identify elite short-to-medium-distance freestyle swimmers through an adaptive Lasso approach. Methods The study recruited 254 swimmers (145 males and 109 females) who were divided them into elite (aged 17.9 ± 2.2 years, FINA points 793.8 ± 73.8) and non-elite (aged 17.1 ± 1.3 years, FINA points 560.6 ± 78.7) groups. Data for 73 variables were obtained, including basic information, anthropometric and derivative indicators. After filtering out highly correlated variables, 24 candidate variables were retained to be used in adaptive Lasso to select variables for prediction of elite swimmers. Deviance and area under the curve (AUC) were applied to assess the goodness of fit and prediction accuracy of the model, respectively. Results The adaptive Lasso selected 12 variables using the whole sample, with an AUC being 0.926 (95% CI [0.895-0.956]; P = 2.42 × 10-29). In stratified analysis by gender, nine variables were selected for male swimmers with an AUC of 0.921 (95% CI [0.880-0.963]; P = 8.82 × 10-17), and eight variables were for female swimmers with an AUC of 0.941 (95% CI [0.898-0.984]; P = 7.67 × 10-15). Conclusion The adaptive Lasso showed satisfactory performance in selecting anthropometric characteristics to identify elite swimmers. Additional studies with longitudinal data or data from other ethnicities are needed to validate our findings.
Collapse
|
9
|
Oppermann J, Knechtle B, Seffrin A, Vancini RL, de Lira CAB, Hill L, Andrade MS. Sex Difference in Female and Male Ice Swimmers for Different Strokes and Water Categories Over Short and Middle Distances: A Descriptive Study. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2022; 8:63. [PMID: 35536463 PMCID: PMC9091067 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-022-00451-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Background Winter swimming developed from a national tradition into a health-improving sport with international competitions. The difference in performance between women and men was thoroughly examined in various sporting disciplines; however, there is little data on winter swimming events. Therefore, this study aims to compare the sex differences in female and male winter swimmers for a distinct stroke over distances of 25 m and 200 m in ice water, freezing water and cold water in the multiple stages of the Winter Swimming World Cup, hosted by the International Winter Swimming Association (IWSA) since 2016. Methods All data included in this study were obtained from the official results of the Winter Swimming World Cup, published on the “International Winter Swimming Association” (IWSA) website. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to compare race time between sexes in different swimming strokes and categories of water. In contrast, the Kruskal–Wallis H test was used to compare differences between swimming strokes or water categories for the same sex. Results For 25 m and 200 m events of the “IWSA World Cup,” male athletes were faster than female athletes, regardless of stroke and water temperature category. However, the effect size of the difference between the sexes was greater in 25 m than in 200 m for all strokes and water temperatures. Swimming speed for the same-sex differed between the swimming stroke in relation to the water temperature category. Head-up breaststroke was found to be the slowest stroke (p < 0.05). Conclusion In water temperatures between − 2° and + 9 °C, men were faster than women in all stages of the “IWSA World Cup,” regardless of the swimming stroke, but the effect size of the difference between the sexes was greater in shorter than in longer events.
Collapse
|
10
|
Witkoś J, Błażejewski G, Hagner-Derengowska M, Makulec K. The Impact of Competitive Swimming on Menstrual Cycle Disorders and Subsequent Sports Injuries as Related to the Female Athlete Triad and on Premenstrual Syndrome Symptoms. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:15854. [PMID: 36497928 PMCID: PMC9737121 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192315854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Background: An athlete's menstrual cycle may be seriously disturbed when she undertakes a physical activity that exceeds the body's adaptive capacity and/or applies dietary restrictions. The main aim of this study was to assess the impact of swimming training undertaken by participants of sport clubs on disorders of the menstrual cycle. METHODS The study involved 64 female athletes. The questionnaire utilized in this study was composed by the authors, however some of the questions were based on Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire (LEAF-Q). RESULTS 31.26% of swimmers reported that the menstrual cycle was stopped for more than 3 months, of which 21.88% had a menstrual absence for more than 6 months and 9.38% between 3 months and 6 months. Years of training were a positive predictor of the 'more profuse bleeding'. There was a negative correlation between the disorders of the menstrual cycle, the body weight of the female participants (p < 0.05) and the body mass index (p < 0.01). It was found that with the severity of the degree of disorder in the menstrual cycle, the number of injuries among the surveyed swimmers increased (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS The correct body weight of the participants was a positive predictor of the absence of the menstrual cycle disorders among the majority of women practicing swimming. Disorders in the menstrual cycle occurring in a certain percentage of the swimmers positively correlated with the number of injuries recorded among these swimmers. Swimming has been shown to alleviate some of the premenstrual symptoms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Witkoś
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University, G. Herlinga-Grudzinskiego Street 1, 30-705 Kraków, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Błażejewski
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University, G. Herlinga-Grudzinskiego Street 1, 30-705 Kraków, Poland
| | - Magdalena Hagner-Derengowska
- Department of Physical Culture, Faculty of Earth Sciences and Spatial Management, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Lwowska Street 1, 87-100 Toruń, Poland
| | - Kamila Makulec
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University, G. Herlinga-Grudzinskiego Street 1, 30-705 Kraków, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Demarie S, Chirico E, Galvani C. Prediction and Analysis of Tokyo Olympic Games Swimming Results: Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Swimmers' Performance. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:2110. [PMID: 35206298 PMCID: PMC8871566 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19042110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in the 2019-2020 season, swimming competitions and training have been limited leading to a setback in performances. The study analyzed if, during the subsequent season, swimmers' have been able to regain the lost performance. Swimming time trends were analyzed comparing Tokyo with Rio Olympics and with mathematically predicted results. The gap between the gold medalist and the last finalist, and the differences between men and women have also been considered. Swimming competition results of females and males, in 100 m and 200 m Freestyle and Backstroke, were collected from the Olympics' official website. Results showed that at Tokyo Olympics almost all swimmers' times improved as compared to Rio's. Analysis of performance trends highlighted that performance progression does not proceed in a linear fashion and that is best predicted by more recent results. Women's progression was higher than men's and the gap between the first and last finalist constantly decreased, except for the Tokyo Olympics. In conclusion, the unprecedented Tokyo Olympic Games and qualification year seems not to have disrupted all Olympic swimmers' performance, suggesting that stakeholders support and athlete's coping ability might safeguard the subsistence of performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Demarie
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Roma, Italy;
| | - Emanuele Chirico
- Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome “Foro Italico”, 00135 Roma, Italy;
| | - Christel Galvani
- Applied Exercise Physiology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 20123 Milano, Italy;
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
International Swimming League: Do Successive Events Lead to Improve Swimming Performance? Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 17:796-799. [PMID: 34814112 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To quantify the impact of successive competitions on swimming performance in world-class swimmers. METHODS An entire data set of all events swum during a new competition named the International Swimming League was collected. A Bayesian linear mixed model has been proposed to evaluate whether a progression could be observed during the International Swimming League's successive competitions and to quantify this effect according to event, age, and gender. RESULTS An overall progression of 0.0005 (0.0001 to 0.0010) m/s/d was observed. The daily mean progression (ie, faster performance) was twice as high for men as for women (0.0008 [0.00 to 0.0014] vs 0.0003 [-0.0003 to 0.0009] m·s-1). A tendency toward higher progression for middle distances (200 and 400 m) and for swimmers of a higher caliber (above 850 FINA [Fédération Internationale de Natation] points) was also observed. Swimmers between 23 and 26 years of age seemed to improve their swimming speed more in comparison with the other swimmers. CONCLUSIONS This new league format, which involves several competitions in a row, seems to allow for an enhancement in swimming performance. Coaches and their support staff can now adapt their periodization plan in order to promote competition participation.
Collapse
|
13
|
Origin of the Fastest 5 km, 10 km and 25 km Open-Water Swimmers-An Analysis from 20 Years and 9819 Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182111369. [PMID: 34769884 PMCID: PMC8583531 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182111369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In elite pool swimmers competing at world class level, mainly athletes from the United States of America and Australia are dominating. Little is known, however, for the nationality of dominating swimmers in elite open-water long-distance swimming races such as the official FINA races over 5 km, 10 km and 25 km-held since 2000. The aim of this study was to investigate the participation and performance trends by nationality of these elite open-water swimmers. Race results from all female and male swimmers competing in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km FINA races between 2000 and 2020 were analyzed. A total of 9819 swimmers competed between 2000 and 2020 in these races. The five countries that figure most times among the top ten in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km races over the years were Italy, Germany, Russia, Brazil and the Netherlands. In 10 km races, considering the all the athletes from each country, male athletes from Germany, Italy, and France presented faster race times than the other countries. In 10 km, female athletes presented no significant difference among the countries. In 5 and 25 km races, there were no differences between countries, for male and female athletes. Moreover, comparing only the 10 best results (top 10) from each country, there were no differences between countries in 5 km, 10 km and 25 km, for male and female athletes. Men were faster than women for all three distances. In summary, male swimmers from Europe (i.e., Germany, Italy, France) are dominating the 10 km FINA races. In the 5 km and 25 km FINA races, there is no dominating nationality, but among the top five countries in the top 10 over the years, three are European countries.
Collapse
|
14
|
Martín-Escudero P, Cabanas AM, Fuentes-Ferrer M, Galindo-Canales M. Oxygen Saturation Behavior by Pulse Oximetry in Female Athletes: Breaking Myths. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2021; 11:bios11100391. [PMID: 34677347 PMCID: PMC8534025 DOI: 10.3390/bios11100391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The myths surrounding women’s participation in sport have been reflected in respiratory physiology. This study aims to demonstrate that continuous monitoring of blood oxygen saturation during a maximal exercise test in female athletes is highly correlated with the determination of the second ventilatory threshold (VT2) or anaerobic threshold (AnT). The measurements were performed using a pulse oximeter during a maximum effort test on a treadmill on a population of 27 healthy female athletes. A common behavior of the oxygen saturation evolution during the incremental exercise test characterized by a decrease in saturation before the aerobic threshold (AeT) followed by a second significant drop was observed. Decreases in peripheral oxygen saturation during physical exertion have been related to the athlete’s physical fitness condition. However, this drop should not be a limiting factor in women’s physical performance. We found statistically significant correlations between the maximum oxygen uptake and the appearance of the ventilatory thresholds (VT1 and VT2), the desaturation time, the total test time, and between the desaturation time and the VT2. We observed a relationship between the desaturation time and the VT2 appearance. Indeed, a linear regression model between the desaturation time and the VT2 appearance can predict 80% of the values in our sample. Besides, we suggest that pulse oximetry is a simple, fairly accurate, and non-invasive technique for studying the physical condition of athletes who perform physical exertion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Martín-Escudero
- Professional Medical School of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (P.M.-E.); (M.G.-C.)
| | - Ana María Cabanas
- Departamento de Física, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica 1010064, Chile
- Correspondence:
| | - Manuel Fuentes-Ferrer
- Unit of Clinical Management (UGC), Department of Preventive Medicine, Hospital Clínico San Carlos, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Mercedes Galindo-Canales
- Professional Medical School of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (P.M.-E.); (M.G.-C.)
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Scholz H, Sousa CV, Baumgartner S, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Changes in Sex Difference in Time-Limited Ultra-Cycling Races from 6 Hours to 24 Hours. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 57:medicina57090923. [PMID: 34577846 PMCID: PMC8469116 DOI: 10.3390/medicina57090923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Background and objective: Existing research shows that the sex differences in distance-limited ultra-cycling races decreased with both increasing race distance and increasing age. It is unknown, however, whether the sex differences in time-limited ultra-cycling races will equally decrease with increasing race distance and age. This study aimed to examine the sex differences regarding performance for time-limited ultra-cycling races (6, 12, and 24 h). Methods: Data were obtained from the online database of the Ultra-Cycling Marathon Association (UMCA) of time-limited ultra-cycling races (6, 12, and 24 h) from the years 1983–2019. A total of 18,241 race results were analyzed to compare cycling speed between men and women by calendar year, age group (<29; 30–39; 40–49; 50–59; 60–69; >70 years), and race duration. Results: The participation of both men (85.1%) and women (14.9%) increased between 1983 and 2019. The age of peak performance was between 40 and 59 years for men and between 30 and 59 years for women. Between 2000 and 2019, more men (63.1% of male participants and 52.2% of female participants) competed in 24 h races. In the 24 h races, the sex difference decreased significantly in all age groups. Men cycled 9.6% faster than women in the 12 h races and 4% faster in the 24 h races. Both women and men improved their performance significantly across the decades. Between 2000 and 2019, the improvement in the 24 h races were 15.6% for men and 21.9% for women. Conclusion: The sex differences in cycling speed decreased between men and women with increasing duration of ultra-cycling races and with increasing age. Women showed a greater performance improvement than men in the last 20 years. The average cycling speed of men and women started to converge in the 24 h races.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heike Scholz
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland; (H.S.); (T.R.)
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Health Technology Lab, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
| | | | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland; (H.S.); (T.R.)
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland; (H.S.); (T.R.)
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland;
- Correspondence: author:
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Knechtle B, Barkai R, Hill L, Nikolaidis PT, Rosemann T, Sousa CV. Influence of Anthropometric Characteristics on Ice Swimming Performance-The IISA Ice Mile and Ice Km. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18136766. [PMID: 34202426 PMCID: PMC8297229 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18136766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2021] [Revised: 06/20/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ice swimming following the rules of IISA (International Ice Swimming Association) is a recent sports discipline starting in 2009. Since then, hundreds of athletes have completed an Ice Mile or an Ice Km in water colder than 5 °C. This study aimed to expand our knowledge about swimmers completing an Ice Mile or an Ice Km regarding the influence of anthropometric characteristics (i.e., body mass, body height, and body mass index, BMI) on performance. We analyzed data from 957 swimmers in the Ice Km (590 men and 367 women) and 585 swimmers in the Ice Mile (334 men and 251 women). No differences were found for anthropometric characteristics between swimmers completing an Ice Mile and an Ice Km although water temperatures and wind chill were lower in the Ice Km than in the Ice Mile. Men were faster than women in both the Ice Mile and Ice Km. Swimming speed decreased significantly with increasing age, body mass, and BMI in both women and men in both the Ice Mile and Ice Km. Body height was positively correlated to swimming speed in women in the Ice Km. Air temperature was significantly and negatively related to swimming speed in the Ice Km but not in the Ice Mile. Water temperature was not associated with swimming speed in men in both the Ice Mile and Ice Km but significantly and negatively in women in Ice Km. In summary, swimmers intending to complete an Ice Mile or an Ice Km do not need to have a high body mass and/or a high BMI to swim these distances fast.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University Hospital Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
| | - Ram Barkai
- International Ice Swimming Association (IISA), 7798 Cape Town, South Africa;
| | - Lee Hill
- Department of Pediatrics, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8N 3Z5, Canada;
| | - Pantelis T. Nikolaidis
- School of Health and Caring Sciences, University of West Attica, 12243 Egaleo, Greece;
- Laboratory of Exercise Testing, Hellenic Air Force Academy, 13671 Acharnes, Greece
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University Hospital Zurich, 8006 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Caio Victor Sousa
- Bouve College of Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Hołub M, Stanula A, Baron J, Głyk W, Rosemann T, Knechtle B. Predicting Breaststroke and Butterfly Stroke Results in Swimming Based on Olympics History. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18126621. [PMID: 34202950 PMCID: PMC8296408 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Here we describe historic variations in Olympic breaststroke and butterfly performance and predict swimming results for the 2021 Olympic Games in Tokyo. The results of the finalists, winners, and last participants in the women’s and men’s finals were analyzed, and a mathematical predictive model was created. The predicted times for the future Olympics were presented. Swimming performance among Olympians has been steadily improving, with record times of 18.51 s for female finalists in the 100 m butterfly (a 24.63% improvement) and 31.33 s for male finalists in the 200 m butterfly (21.44%). The results in all analyzed groups showed improvement in athletic performance, and the gap between the finalists has narrowed. Women Olympians’ performances have improved faster than men’s, reducing the gap between genders. We conclude that swimming performance among Olympians is continuing to improve.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maciej Hołub
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Arkadiusz Stanula
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Jakub Baron
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Wojciech Głyk
- Institute of Sport Sciences, Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical Education, 40-065 Katowice, Poland; (M.H.); (A.S.); (J.B.); (W.G.)
| | - Thomas Rosemann
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
| | - Beat Knechtle
- Institute of Primary Care, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland;
- Medbase St. Gallen Am Vadianplatz, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Ganse B, Degens H. Current Insights in the Age-related Decline in Sports Performance of the Older Athlete. Int J Sports Med 2021; 42:879-888. [PMID: 34000751 DOI: 10.1055/a-1480-7730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The higher performance level of master athletes compared to non-athletes is often associated with better health throughout life. However, even the physical performance of master athletes declines with age, and this decline accelerates from about the age of 70 years onwards. A progressive loss of muscle mass, declines in force- and power-generating capacity, decreased flexibility, and the concomitant decline in specific tension characterize the muscular changes underlying performance declines. In the cardiovascular system, declines in stroke volume and cardiac output, and cardiac and vascular stiffness contribute to decreasing performance. Recent studies have shown that long-term endurance exercise in master athletes does not only have positive effects, but is associated with an increased incidence of atrial fibrillation, atherosclerotic plaques, and aortic dilation, and even more so in men than in women. Recently, larger longitudinal datasets were analysed and showed that the age-related decline in performance was similar in longitudinal and cross-sectional data. In conclusion, regular physical activity enhances the exercise capacity, and hence quality of life in old age, but it is not without risks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bergita Ganse
- Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science & Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.,Innovative Implant Development, Clinics and Institutes of Surgery, Universität des Saarlandes, Homburg, Germany
| | - Hans Degens
- Research Centre for Musculoskeletal Science & Sports Medicine, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.,Institute of Sport Science and Innovations, Lithuanian Sports University, Kaunas, Lithuania
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Monitoring Master Swimmers' Performance and Active Drag Evolution along a Training Mesocycle. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18073569. [PMID: 33808199 PMCID: PMC8038111 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18073569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Revised: 03/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to analyze the effects of a swimming training mesocycle in master swimmers' performance and active drag. Twenty-two 39.87 ± 6.10 year-old master swimmers performed a 25 m front crawl at maximal intensity before and after a typical four-week training mesocycle. Maximum, mean and minimum speeds, speed decrease and hip horizontal intra-cyclic velocity variation were assessed using an electromechanical speedometer, and the active drag and power to overcome drag were determined using the measuring active drag system. Maximum, mean and minimum front crawl speeds improved from pre- to post-training (mean ± 95% CI: 3.1 ± 2.8%, p = 0.04; 2.9 ± 1.6%, p = 0.01; and 4.6 ± 3.1%, p = 0.01; respectively) and the speed decrease along the 25 m test lowered after the training period (82.5 ± 76.3%, p = 0.01). The training mesocycle caused a reduction in the active drag at speeds corresponding to 70% (5.0 ± 3.9%), 80% (5.6 ± 4.0%), and 90% (5.9 ± 4.0%), but not at 100% (5.9 ± 6.7%), of the swimmers' maximal exertions in the 25 m test. These results showed that four weeks of predominantly aerobic training could improve master swimmers' performance and reduce their hydrodynamic drag while swimming mainly at submaximal speeds.
Collapse
|
20
|
Botta de Arruda T, Kalva-Filho CA, Milioni F, Barbieri RA, Bucken Gobbi R, Papoti M. Effects of an experimental taper period on male and female swimmers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2021; 61:1578-1586. [PMID: 33615760 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.21.11991-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study investigated the possible influence of the gender on the responses of swimmers during a taper period (TP). METHODS Ten males (19 ± 3 years and 73.5 ± 7.8 kg) and ten females (17 ± 2 years and 54.7 ± 7.2 kg) swimmers were submitted to a 12-week training, followed by three weeks of the TP. Before and after the TP we evaluated the performance at 100 m freestyle, stroke parameters and lactacidemic responses; lactate minimum intensity (LMI) and stroke parameters associated with LMI and the propulsive force in tethered swimming. TP consisted of 14 sessions with mean volume 2,253 ± 1,213 m•session-1 at an intensity below than the LMI, 1,730 ± 327 m•session-1 at an intensity near the LMI and 1,530 ± 1,019 m•session-1 at an intensity above the LMI. RESULTS Significant effects of the genders were observed for LMI and stroke parameters (p-value < 0.001 and η2 > 0.52 [large]) and propulsive force (p-value = 0.001; η2 = 0.59 [large]). However, no significant effects of the TP were identified in the performance of the 100 m freestyle (p-value = 0.66; η2 = 0.006 [small]), propulsive force (p-value > 0.63; η2 < 0.006 [small]), aerobic parameters (LMI: p-value = 0.32 and η2 = 0.03 [small]) and mechanical parameters (p-value > 0.23; η2 = 0.01 [small]). Nonetheless, the peak blood lactate concentrations were improved after TP (p-value = 0.014; η2 = 0.16 [large]), without significant interactions (p-value = 0.38; η2 = 0.02 [small]), as well as the mechanical parameters during maximum 100 m freestyle (p-value < 0.04 and η2 > 0.10 [medium]). CONCLUSIONS Hence, men and women presenting significantly different values in the age group studied, the responses observed after the TP investigated were the same independent of gender.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tarine Botta de Arruda
- Laboratory of Aquatic Activities, School of Physical Education and Sport of Ribeirão Preto (EEFERP-USP), University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo - Brazil -
| | - Carlos A Kalva-Filho
- Human Movement Research Laboratory (MOVI-LAB), São Paulo State University (UNESP), Bauru, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fabio Milioni
- Laboratory of Physiology and Human Performance, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Paulo State University, Bauru, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ricardo A Barbieri
- Laboratory of Aquatic Activities, School of Physical Education and Sport of Ribeirão Preto (EEFERP-USP), University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo - Brazil.,Estácio University Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ronaldo Bucken Gobbi
- Laboratory of Aquatic Activities, School of Physical Education and Sport of Ribeirão Preto (EEFERP-USP), University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo - Brazil
| | - Marcelo Papoti
- Laboratory of Aquatic Activities, School of Physical Education and Sport of Ribeirão Preto (EEFERP-USP), University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo - Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Swimming World Championships: Association between Success at the Junior and Senior Level for British Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18031237. [PMID: 33573125 PMCID: PMC7908464 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18031237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The present study examines the association between the success at junior and senior level for British swimmers in World Championships (WCs). It also explores the relationships between swimming performance and the swimmers’ gender, swim stroke, distance, status (finalist, semifinalist and heats) and swimming category. Data were collected for swimmers participating in junior and/or senior World Championships (29,000 entries: 5585 swimmers) from 2006–2017. The final filtered database included only swimmers from the United Kingdom (836 entries: 141 swimmers). A descriptive analysis was made to characterize the swimmers who reached elite status in the senior category. A lineal regression model was run by gender to predict the influence of category, swim stroke, and distance in the results reached in the senior category. The results showed that the ratio of conversion from junior to senior was quite low. Females who participated in both junior and senior WCs were likely to reach top positions in the senior category. Overall, few British swimmers participated in a junior category before the senior level, but female swimmers participating in both junior and senior WCs were likely to reach top positions in the senior category.
Collapse
|
22
|
Do Sex Differences in Physiology Confer a Female Advantage in Ultra-Endurance Sport? Sports Med 2021; 51:895-915. [PMID: 33502701 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01417-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Ultra-endurance has been defined as any exercise bout that exceeds 6 h. A number of exceptional, record-breaking performances by female athletes in ultra-endurance sport have roused speculation that they might be predisposed to success in such events. Indeed, while the male-to-female performance gap in traditional endurance sport (e.g., marathon) remains at ~ 10%, the disparity in ultra-endurance competition has been reported as low as 4% despite the markedly lower number of female participants. Moreover, females generally outperform males in extreme-distance swimming. The issue is complex, however, with many sports-specific considerations and caveats. This review summarizes the sex-based differences in physiological functions and draws attention to those which likely determine success in extreme exercise endeavors. The aim is to provide a balanced discussion of the female versus male predisposition to ultra-endurance sport. Herein, we discuss sex-based differences in muscle morphology and fatigability, respiratory-neuromechanical function, substrate utilization, oxygen utilization, gastrointestinal structure and function, and hormonal control. The literature indicates that while females exhibit numerous phenotypes that would be expected to confer an advantage in ultra-endurance competition (e.g., greater fatigue resistance, greater substrate efficiency, and lower energetic demands), they also exhibit several characteristics that unequivocally impinge on performance (e.g., lower O2-carrying capacity, increased prevalence of GI distress, and sex-hormone effects on cellular function/injury risk). Crucially, the advantageous traits may only manifest as ergogenic in the extreme endurance events which, paradoxically, are those that females less often contest. The title question should be revisited in the coming years, when/if the number of female participants increases.
Collapse
|
23
|
Dopsaj M, Zuoziene IJ, Milić R, Cherepov E, Erlikh V, Masiulis N, di Nino A, Vodičar J. Body Composition in International Sprint Swimmers: Are There Any Relations with Performance? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17249464. [PMID: 33348744 PMCID: PMC7766121 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17249464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The paper addresses relations between the characteristics of body composition in international sprint swimmers and sprint performance. The research included 82 swimmers of international level (N = 46 male and N = 36 female athletes) from 8 countries. We measured body composition using multifrequency bioelectrical impedance methods with “InBody 720” device. In the case of male swimmers, it was established that the most important statistically significant correlation with sprint performance is seen in variables, which define the quantitative relationship between their fat and muscle with the contractile potential of the body (Protein-Fat Index, r = 0.392, p = 0.007; Index of Body Composition, r = 0.392, p = 0.007; Percent of Skeletal Muscle Mass, r = 0.392, p = 0.016). In the case of female athletes, statistically significant relations with sprint performance were established for variables that define the absolute and relative amount of a contractile component in the body, but also with the variables that define the structure of body fat characteristics (Percent of Skeletal Muscle Mass, r = 0.732, p = 0.000; Free Fat Mass, r = 0.702, p = 0.000; Fat Mass Index, r = −0.642, p = 0.000; Percent of Body Fat, r = −0.621, p = 0.000). Using Multiple Regression Analysis, we managed to predict swimming performance of sprint swimmers with the help of body composition variables, where the models defined explained 35.1 and 75.1% of the mutual variability of performance, for male and female swimmers, respectively. This data clearly demonstrate the importance of body composition control in sprint swimmers as a valuable method for monitoring the efficiency of body adaptation to training process in order to optimize competitive performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Milivoj Dopsaj
- Institute of Sport, Tourism and Service, South Ural State University, 454080 Chelyabinsk, Russia; (E.C.); (V.E.)
- Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Belgrade, Blagoja Parovića ul. 156, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +381-63-846-1174
| | - Ilona Judita Zuoziene
- Faculty of Sports Biomedicine, Lithuanian Sports University, Sporto str. 6, LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania; (I.J.Z.); (N.M.)
| | - Radoje Milić
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova ul. 22, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (R.M.); (J.V.)
| | - Evgeni Cherepov
- Institute of Sport, Tourism and Service, South Ural State University, 454080 Chelyabinsk, Russia; (E.C.); (V.E.)
| | - Vadim Erlikh
- Institute of Sport, Tourism and Service, South Ural State University, 454080 Chelyabinsk, Russia; (E.C.); (V.E.)
| | - Nerijus Masiulis
- Faculty of Sports Biomedicine, Lithuanian Sports University, Sporto str. 6, LT-44221 Kaunas, Lithuania; (I.J.Z.); (N.M.)
| | | | - Janez Vodičar
- Faculty of Sport, University of Ljubljana, Gortanova ul. 22, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; (R.M.); (J.V.)
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Variation in competition performance, number of races, and age: Long-term athlete development in elite female swimmers. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242442. [PMID: 33206722 PMCID: PMC7673509 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
While talent development and the contributing factors to success are hardly discussed among the experts in the field, the aim of the study was to investigate annual variation in competition performance (AVCP), number of races per year, and age, as potential success factors for international swimming competitions. Data from 40’277 long-course races, performed by all individual female starters (n = 253) at the 2018 European Swimming Championships (2018EC) for all 10 years prior to these championships, were analyzed. Relationships between 2018EC ranking and potential success factors, i.e., AVCP, number of races per year, and age, were determined using Pearson’s correlation coefficient and multiple linear regression analysis. While AVCP was not related to ranking, higher ranked swimmers at the 2018EC swam more races during each of the ten years prior to the championships (P < 0.001). Additionally, older athletes were more successful (r = -0.42, P < 0.001). The regression model explained highly significant proportions (P < 0.001) and 43%, 34%, 35%, 49% of total variance in the 2018EC ranking for 50m, 100m, 200m, and 400m races, respectively. As number of races per year (β = -0.29 –-0.40) had a significant effect on ranking of 50-400m races, and age (β = -0.40 –-0.61) showed a significant effect on ranking over all race distances, number of races per year and age may serve as success factors for international swimming competitions. The larger number of races swum by higher ranked female swimmers may have aided long-term athlete development regarding technical, physiological, and mental skill acquisitions. As older athletes were more successful, female swimmers under the age of peak performance, who did not reach semi-finals or finals, may increase their chances of success in following championships with increased experience.
Collapse
|
25
|
Grant AJ, Kanwal A, Shah AB. Swimming: What the Sports Cardiologist Should Know. CURRENT TREATMENT OPTIONS IN CARDIOVASCULAR MEDICINE 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11936-020-00876-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
|