Children's Abrasions in Recreational Beach Areas and a Review of Possible Wound Infections

Quantification of Climate Footprints of Vibrio vulnificus in Coastal Human Communities of the United States Gulf Coast

The incidence of vibriosis is rising globally with evidence of climate variability influencing environmental processes that support growth of pathogenic Vibrio spp. The waterborne pathogen, Vibrio vulnificus can invade wounds and has one of the highest case fatality rates in humans. The bacterium cannot be eradicated from the aquatic environment, hence climate driven environmental conditions enhancing growth and dissemination of V. vulnificus need to be understood to provide preemptive assessment of its presence and distribution in aquatic systems. To achieve this objective, satellite remote sensing was employed to quantify the association of sea surface temperature (SST) and chlorophyll-a (chl-a) in locations with reported V. vulnificus infections. Monthly analysis was done in two populated regions of the Gulf of Mexico-Tampa Bay, Florida, and Galveston Bay, Texas. Results indicate warm water, characterized by a 2-month lag in SST, high concentration of phytoplankton, proxied for zooplankton using 1 month lagged chl-a values, was statistically linked to higher odds of V. vulnificus infection in the human population. Identification of climate and ecological processes thresholds is concluded to be useful for development of an heuristic prediction system designed to determine risk of infection for coastal populations.

Plastic pollution as a novel reservoir for the environmental survival of the drug resistant fungal pathogen Candida auris

The WHO recently classified Candida auris as a fungal pathogen of "critical concern". Evidence suggests that C. auris emerged from the natural environment, yet the ability of this pathogenic yeast to survive in the natural environment is still poorly understood. The aim of this study, therefore, was to quantify the persistence of C. auris in simulated environmental matrices and explore the role of plastic pollution for facilitating survival and potential transfer of C. auris. Multi-drug resistant strains of C. auris persisted for over 30 days in river water or seawater, either planktonically, or in biofilms colonising high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or glass. C. auris could be transferred from plastic beads onto simulated beach sand, particularly when the sand was wet. Importantly, all C. auris cells recovered from plastics retained their pathogenicity; therefore, plastic pollution could play a significant role in the widescale environmental dissemination of this recently emerged pathogen.

Detection of enteric viruses and SARS-CoV-2 in beach sand

Beach sand harbors a diverse group of microbial organisms that may be of public health concern. Nonetheless, little is known about the presence and distribution of viruses in beach sand. In this study, the first objective was to evaluate the presence of seven viruses (Aichi virus, enterovirus, hepatitis A virus, human adenovirus, norovirus, rotavirus, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)) in sands collected at public beaches. The second objective was to assess the spatial distribution of enteric viruses in beach sand. To that end, 27 beach sand samples from different beaches in Portugal were collected between November 2018 and August 2020 and analyzed for the presence of viruses. At seven beaches, samples were collected in the supratidal and intertidal zones. Results show that viruses were detected in 89 % (24/27) of the sand samples. Aichi virus was the most prevalent (74 %). Noroviruses were present in 19 % of the samples (norovirus GI - 15 %, norovirus GII - 4 %). Human adenovirus and enterovirus were detected in 48 % and 22 % of the samples, respectively. Hepatitis A virus and rotavirus were not detected. Similarly, SARS-CoV-2 in beach sand collected during the initial stages of the pandemic was also not detected. The detection of three or more viruses occurred in 15 % of the samples. Concentrations of viruses were as high as 7.2 log copies (cp)/g of sand. Enteric viruses were found in higher prevalence in sand collected from the supratidal zone compared to the intertidal zone. Human adenovirus was detected in 43 % of the supratidal and 14 % in the intertidal samples and Aichi virus in 57 % and 86 % of the intertidal and supratidal areas, respectively. Our findings suggest that beach sand can be a reservoir of enteric viruses, suggesting that it might be a vehicle for disease transmission, particularly for children, the elderly, and immunocompromised users.

Integrating microbial source tracking with quantitative microbial risk assessment to evaluate site specific risk based thresholds at two South Florida beaches

Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) can be used to evaluate health risks associated with recreational beach use. This study developed a site-specific risk assessment using a novel approach that combined quantitative PCR-based measurement of microbial source tracking (MST) genetic markers (human, dog, and gull fecal bacteria) with a QMRA analysis of potential pathogen risk. Water samples (n = 24) from two recreational beaches were collected and analyzed for MST markers as part of a broader Beach Exposure And Child Health Study that examined child behavior interactions with the beach environment. We report here the measurements of fecal bacteria MST markers in the environmental DNA extracts of those samples and a QMRA analysis of potential health risks utilizing the results from the MST measurements in the water samples. Human-specific Bacteroides was enumerated by the HF183 Taqman qPCR assay, gull-specific Catellicoccus was enumerated by the Gull2 qPCR assay, and dog-specific Bacteroides was enumerated by the DogBact qPCR assay. Derived reference pathogen doses, calculated from the MST marker concentrations detected in recreational waters, were used to estimate the risk of gastrointestinal illness for both children and adults. Dose-response equations were used to estimate the probability of the risk of infection (Pinf) per a swimming exposure event. Based on the QMRA simulations presented in this study, the GI risk from swimming or playing in water containing a mixture of human and non-human fecal sources appear to be primarily driven by the human fecal source. However, the estimated median GI health risk for both beaches never exceeded the U.S. EPA risk threshold of 32 illnesses per 1,000 recreation events. Our research suggests that utilizing QMRA together with MST can further extend our understanding of potential recreational bather risk by identifying the source contributing the greatest risk in a particular location, therefore informing beach management responses and decision-making.

Characterization of Prophylactic Antimicrobial Therapy Practices for Patients With Marine-Associated Injuries in the Emergency Department

BACKGROUND

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommendations for the treatment of marine-associated wound infections include empiric coverage for Vibrio species with a combination of a third-generation cephalosporin and doxycycline. These recommendations are based on limited data and it remains unclear if this regimen is also indicated for prophylaxis.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this analysis was to assess the antibiotic regimens used in the emergency department (ED) for prophylaxis of marine-associated injuries relative to the CDC recommendations and evaluate any clinical impact.

METHODS

A retrospective review evaluated adult patients discharged from the ED over a 4-year period with an antibiotic prescription following an injury with marine exposure.

RESULTS

114 patients were included in the analysis. The majority of patients were < 40 years of age with no previous medical history and presented after sustaining a laceration secondary to oyster shells. 97.4% received prophylactic antibiotic therapy that did not match the CDC recommendations, with the majority receiving doxycycline monotherapy (82%). A 1.8% 30-day ED revisit rate was noted with 2 patients returning for therapy failure. No patients were admitted to the hospital within 30 days and no documented adverse effects related to antibiotic therapy were noted.

CONCLUSION

Current prophylactic antibiotic prescribing practices diverge from the current CDC recommendations for the treatment of marine-associated infections, however, an effect secondary to these variations was not observed. Further investigations of prophylaxis against Vibrio infections in low-risk patients is warranted to limit collateral damage and improve antimicrobial stewardship in the ED.

Evaluation and Management of Watercraft-Related Injuries for Acute Care Surgeons: Towards Improving Care and Implementing Effective Public Health Prevention Policies

Boating has exposed humans to elemental hazards for centuries. What was once a lifelong craft and time-honored skillset is now, with modern technology, a popular recreational activity. Boating safety has inherent limitations and has been historically challenging to enforce. These circumstances have given way to a rising number of watercraft-associated injuries and fatalities. This review aims to investigate the diagnosis, work-up, and management of watercraft-related injuries, including blunt mechanisms, propeller wounds, water-force trauma, associated marine infections, and submersion injuries, as well as outline gaps in current public health policy on watercraft injuries, potential interventions, and available solutions. Motorboats and personal watercraft differ in size, power modality, and differential risk for injury. Accidents aboard watercraft often share commonalities with motor vehicles and motorcycles, namely: rapid deceleration, ejection, and collision with humans. The complexity of care is added by the austere environment in which many watercraft accidents occur, as well as the added morbidity of drowning and hypothermia. Wounds can also become infected by marine organisms, which require wound care and antimicrobial therapy specific to the aquatic environment in which the injury occurred. The treatment of these patients can be further exacerbated by the prolonged transportation times due to complicated water rescue. There are many measures that can prevent or abate watercraft injuries, but inconsistent regulations and enforcement may impair the success of these interventions. Further research is needed to identify possible solutions to common causes of watercraft injuries, such as inconsistent lifejacket use and bow riding.

Towards integrated modeling of the long-term impacts of oil spills

Although great progress has been made to advance the scientific understanding of oil spills, tools for integrated assessment modeling of the long-term impacts on ecosystems, socioeconomics and human health are lacking. The objective of this study was to develop a conceptual framework that could be used to answer stakeholder questions about oil spill impacts and to identify knowledge gaps and future integration priorities. The framework was initially separated into four knowledge domains (ocean environment, biological ecosystems, socioeconomics, and human health) whose interactions were explored by gathering stakeholder questions through public engagement, assimilating expert input about existing models, and consolidating information through a system dynamics approach. This synthesis resulted in a causal loop diagram from which the interconnectivity of the system could be visualized. Results of this analysis indicate that the system naturally separates into two tiers, ocean environment and biological ecosystems versus socioeconomics and human health. As a result, ocean environment and ecosystem models could be used to provide input to explore human health and socioeconomic variables in hypothetical scenarios. At decadal-plus time scales, the analysis emphasized that human domains influence the natural domains through changes in oil-spill related laws and regulations. Although data gaps were identified in all four model domains, the socioeconomics and human health domains are the least established. Considerable future work is needed to address research gaps and to create fully coupled quantitative integrative assessment models that can be used in strategic decision-making that will optimize recoveries from future large oil spills.

Assessment of seawater bacterial infection in rabbit tibia by Illumina MiSeq sequencing and bacterial culture

Objectives

We aimed to explore the bacterial community composition following ocean bacterial infection using an animal model.

Methods

This animal-based experiment was conducted from September 2019 to November 2019. Eighteen seawater filter membranes were collected from Changle City, Fujiian Province, China, on September 8, 2019. Ten filter membranes were used for implantation. Eight filter membranes that were used in the bacterial culture for the exploration of seawater bacteria were assigned to the seawater group (SG). Fourteen healthy adult New Zealand rabbits were randomly divided into the experimental group (EG) and control group (CG). Seawater filter membranes and asepsis membranes were implanted into the tibia in the EG and CG, respectively. One week after surgery, tibial bone pathology tissues were collected and assessed using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Medullary cavity tissues were collected for the performance of Illumina MiSeq sequencing and bacterial culture. The differences between EG and CG were assessed by pathological observation under light microscopy and SEM, high-throughput bacterial sequencing, and bacterial culture.

Results

Compared with the CG, the infection rate was 100%, and the mortality value was 20% after the implantation of the filter membranes in the EG. Both light microscopy and SEM showed that a large number of bacteria were distributed in the bone marrow cavity after ocean bacterial infection. No bacterial growth was found in the CG. Illumina MiSeq sequencing found that Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Thermotogae, Fusobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Actinobacteria were the dominant bacteria at the phylum level and Clostridium_sensu_stricto_7, Haloimpatiens, Clostridium_sensu_stricto_15, Clostridiaceae_1, Clostridium_sensu_stricto_18, and Oceanotoga were the dominant bacteria in genus level among the EG. In the bacterial culture of the medullary cavity tissues, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Shewanella algae, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Enterobacter cloacae, and Vibrio vulnificus were the predominant infective species. Moreover, compared with the SG, the EG showed a higher detection rate of E. coli and S. aureus (P = 0.008 and P = 0.001, respectively). The detection rates of V. alginolyticus, V. parahaemolyticus, and V. fluvialis were higher in the SG than the EG (P = 0.007, P = 0.03, and P = 0.03, respectively).

Conclusions

Our model, which was comprehensively evaluated using four techniques: histopathology and SEM observation, gene detection, and bacteria culture, provides a scientific basis for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of patients in such settings.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13018-021-02553-9.

Effect of Seawater Temperature Increase on the Occurrence of Coastal Vibrio vulnificus Cases: Korean National Surveillance Data from 2003 to 2016

The purpose of this study was to assess the association between seawater temperature and Vibrio vulnificus cases in coastal regions of Korea. All V. vulnificus cases in coastal regions notified to the Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency between 2003 and 2016 were included in this work. Data for seawater temperature on the south, west, and east coast during the study period were provided by the Korea Oceanographic Data Center of the National Institute of Fisheries Science. We used a generalized additive model and performed a negative binomial regression analysis. In total, 383 notified cases were analyzed (west coast: 196 cases, south coast: 162, and east coast: 25). The maximum seawater temperature was the most significant predictor of V. vulnificus cases on the south and east coasts (relative risk according to the 1 °C increase in seawater temperature (RR) = 1.35 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.19–1.53) and 1.30 (95% CI: 1.06–1.59), respectively). However, the mean seawater temperature was the most significant predictor for the west coast (RR = 1.34 (95% CI: 1.20–1.51)). These results indicate that continuously monitoring seawater temperature increase in each coastal area is crucial to prevent V. vulnificus infections and protect high-risk groups, such as persons with liver disease.

Quantified Activity Patterns for Young Children in Beach Environments Relevant for Exposure to Contaminants

In a study to evaluate beach play activities, 120 children were videotaped to observe and quantify factors that could influence their exposure to contaminants in the beach environment. Children aged 1 to 6 years were followed by researchers with video cameras at beaches (two in Miami, Florida and two in Galveston, Texas) for approximately one hour each. Factors evaluated included time spent in various beach locations, various activities engaged in, and various surfaces contacted (including contacts by hand and mouth). Activities recorded in the videos were transcribed to text files to allow for quantitative analyses. Across all sexes, age groups, and beaches, Wading was the most common activity and Seawater was the most common location where children played. The left hand was found to not be in contact with objects most of the time, while the right hand, considered the most dominant hand in most cases, contacted Plastic-Toys the most. Although activity patterns collection through videotaping and videotranslation can be labor-intensive, once collected, they can be widely useful for estimates of exposures to all contaminants in the beach environment (e.g., microorganisms and chemicals) as well as UV exposure, with considerations for whether the contaminants are found in water, sand or both. These activity patterns were collected to potentially look at exposures following the Deepwater Horizon 2010 Spill.

Soil-skin adherence measures from hand press trials in a Gulf study of exposures

Marine oil spills and the resulting environmental contamination is common along coastal areas; however, information is lacking about the safety of impacted beaches for public use, especially for the most vulnerable population: children. One route of exposure for children at oil impacted beaches is through contact with sands. The purpose of this study was to evaluate beach sand skin adherence for children under the age of seven. Each of 122 children participated in a hand press trial conducted at one of four different U.S. beaches (two in Miami, FL, and two in Galveston, TX USA). During the hand press trials, hand conditions of the children were randomized (dry, wet, or with sunscreen), and soil adherence (mass of sand per palmar surface area of the hand) and the maximum pressure applied (force applied per area of hand) was measured and calculated. Each child was instructed to press their hands on a soil laden tray for 5 s and pressure of contact was measured using a scale. Results (n = 98) showed that the average soil adherence for both palmar hands across the four beaches ranged from 0.200 to 234 mg/cm² with an average of 35.7 mg/cm², with boys (40.4 mg/cm²) showing slightly higher means than girls (31.7 mg/cm²), but these differences were not significant even after adjusting for age. Among the three conditions evaluated, the highest loading was measured for children with wet hands (mean 65.3 mg/cm²), followed by dry hands (mean 24.5 mg/cm²). Sunscreen hands (mean 23.2 mg/cm²) had the lowest loadings. The pressure of contact ranged from 0.180 to 1.69 psi and varied by age groups and by height and weight, where pressure of contact did not have a significant influence on soil adherence. The average adhered sand grain size and average ambient sand grain size both had a statistically significant impact on hand soil adherence. Overall results from this study can be utilized in exposure and risk assessment models to evaluate the possible health impacts from contaminants found in beach sands.

Review of methods to determine hand surface area of children less than six years old: a case study

Various methods exist to determine the surface area of hands. The consistency of these methods is essential given that risk assessments utilize hand surface area (HSA) to quantify exposure to environmental contaminants. HSA is also utilized in the clinical setting to estimate size of burns, and to determine specific treatments and medication dosages. A reliable method of surface area measurement is important to guide these decisions, especially in children who are vulnerable to environmental contaminants and medication side effects. Despite this, fewer HSA-determining studies have been performed for children compared to adults. In this study, 122 children completed hand tracings, and the tracings were digitized using an ImageJ program to determine HSA. Six previously published methods of determining HSA were utilized based on the child's height, weight, and length and width of hand. Children were analyzed by age group including 0-2, 3-4, and 5-6 years. The HSA measurements determined by five of the six methods were statistically different from HSA determined using direct hand tracings/Image J methodology (p < 0.001). The single remaining study that did not differ significantly from the hand tracing method provided a uniform hand to total body surface area (TBSA) ratio for children of all ages. Based on these results, we propose a novel age-group-specific ratio utilizing the HSA results from hand tracings and TBSA calculations. The percentages of TBSA that reflect HSA for children aged 0-2, 3-4 and 5-6 years were 0.91%, 0.90% and 0.87%, respectively. These percentages should be considered for use in risk assessments and the clinical setting to guide treatment and prognosis.

Estimating Health Risks to Children Associated with Recreational Play on Oil Spill-Contaminated Beaches

The human health impact from exposure to contaminated shorelines following an oil spill event has been investigated to some extent. However, the health risks to children have largely been characterized through the use of surveys and extrapolation from adult health outcomes. There is limited information on children's behaviors during beach play requiring assumptions made based on observations from play activities in home settings. The Beach Exposure and Child Health Study (BEACHES) quantified specific beach activities that can be used to inform human health risk assessments of children playing on beaches impacted by oil spills. The results of this study characterize children's risk of cancer from exposure to oil spill chemicals by incorporating exposure-related information collected from the BEACHES study and by assuming oral, dermal, and inhalation exposure routes. Point risk estimates are compared with a previous, similar study that applied default exposure parameter values obtained from the published literature. The point risk estimates informed by BEACHES data are one order of magnitude lower compared with the previous risk assessment, with dermal exposures the overall risk driver in both. Additional Monte Carlo simulations evaluating the BEACHES data provide ranges of health risks with the highest estimates associated with dermal and oral exposure routes.

Soil, Hand, and Body Adherence Measures across Four Beach Areas: Potential Influence on Exposure to Oil Spill Chemicals

Skin adherence (SA) of soil affects exposure from soil contaminants through dermal routes via loading on the skin and through ingestion routes through hand to mouth activities. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the relationships between adherence versus child-specific and environmental factors. Two sets of soil-to-skin adherence were evaluated. The first was based on loading on hands following hand presses (Hand SA). The second was based on body rinses following one hour of play activities on the beach (Body SA). Results for 98-119 children conducted at four beach sites show that mean Hand SA was 35.7 mg/cm2 (std. dev. 41.8 mg/cm2), while Body SA based on full coverage was 6.8 mg/cm2 (std. dev. 4.8 mg/cm2). Statistically significant differences in Body SA were observed between male (8.1 mg/cm2) and female (5.8 mg/cm2) children (p < 0.05). No significant difference by sex was found for Hand SA. Other statistically different observations were that Hand SA (p < 0.05), but not Body SA, differed across the four beaches (p < 0.05). For Hand SA, this difference was associated soil size variability across the beaches. Hand and Body SA values measured during this study are recommended for use in risk assessments that evaluate beach exposures to oil spill chemicals for young children.