Health Benefits Derived from Forest: A Review

Interplay among Anxiety, Digital Environmental Exposure, and Cognitive Control: Implications of Natural Settings

Inhibitory control performance may differ greatly as a function of individual differences such as anxiety. Nonetheless, how cognitive control proficiency might be influenced by exposure to various environments and how anxiety traits might impact these effects remain unexplored. A cohort of thirty healthy volunteers participated in the study. Participants performed a Go/No-Go task before exposure to a 'forest' and 'urban' virtual environment, in a counterbalanced design, before repeating the GNG task. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) was finally filled-in. Our findings unveiled an initial negative correlation between anxiety trait levels and GNG task performance, consistent with the established literature attributing difficulties in inhibitory functionality to anxiety. Additionally, different environmental exposures reported opposite trends. Exposure to the 'forest' environment distinctly improved the GNG performance in relation to anxiety traits, while the 'urban' setting demonstrated adverse effects on task performance. These results underscore the intricate relationship among cognitive control, environmental exposure, and trait anxiety. In particular, our findings highlight the potential of natural settings, such as forests, to mitigate the impact of anxiety on inhibition. This might have implications for interventions aimed at improving cognitive control.

Long-Term Effects of Mountain Hiking vs. Forest Therapy on Physical and Mental Health of Couples: A Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Lifelong physical activity is related to longer health span, which is reflected at an individual level, and is of substantial socioeconomic relevance. Sedentary lifestyles, on the other hand, pose an increasingly major public health problem. In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact on activity levels and well-being. Previous research indicates that contact with nature might improve exercise levels as well as well-being.

METHODS

This randomized, controlled clinical trial (ANKER-study) investigated the effects of two types of nature-based therapies (forest therapy and mountain hiking) in couples (FTG: n = 23; HG: n = 22;) with a sedentary or inactive lifestyle on health-related quality of life, relationship quality and other psychological and physiological parameters.

RESULTS

The results of this study displayed that healthy and highly functioning women and men with sedentary lifestyles mentally benefit from contact with nature (quality of life, satisfaction with life, mood, internal and external health-related control beliefs). The gender-specific effect on women is most visible in the physiological outcomes (hemopoietic system, aerobic capacity, skeletal muscle mass and hydration) of mountain hiking. Men and women showed small improvements in blood pressure as a result of the interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

The ANKER-study provides a method for valid comparison of forest therapy interventions for the first time. Regarding the COVID-19 pandemic, the nature-based intervention presented could offer a multimodal contribution to maintaining a more active lifestyle, further contact with nature that affects peoples physical as well as mental health, and an improvement in social interaction.

Mapping and assessing coastal recreation cultural ecosystem services supply, flow, and demand in Lithuania

Coastal recreation as a cultural ecosystem service (CES) is key to human wellbeing. However, anthropogenic impacts at the coast affect CES supply. Mapping and assessing CES can help achieve better coastal planning and management of the coast. Quantitative approaches for assessing and mapping CES are lacking, especially in coastal areas. We develop three quantitative models to assess and map coastal recreation CES supply, flow, and demand. We applied the developed models in the coastal region of Lithuania. The coastal recreation CES supply model comprises natural (e.g., naturalness) and cultural (e.g., points of interest) components. The input variables were (1) analysed for multicollinearity, (2) normalised and (3) overlayed using ArcGIS 10.8. An online survey was undertaken to assess and map CES flow and demand based on locations chosen by respondents where they perform recreation at the coast and the number of activities performed when visiting the coast. The coastal recreation CES supply model results showed that natural recreation is close to the coastline, forest areas, waterlines, and protected areas, while cultural recreation is highest in coastal urban areas. The supply model was validated (r² = 0.11) based on the respondents' chosen coastal locations for recreation. The low validation allowed us to identify the mismatch between model results and respondents' preferences occurring in Klaipėda urban area. When removing respondents' points in Klaipeda urban area, the model validation increased (r² = 0.36). CES flow results highlighted Palanga, Šventoji, and Nida as the prime coastal recreation locations. The results of CES demand show that respondents living in municipalities near the coastline (Baltic Sea and Curonian Lagoon) perform fewer activities when visiting the coast. For other municipalities, a demand pattern was not observed. Our results yielded important spatial information that can be useful for planners and decision-makers in the context of coastal management.

Pleistocene Hypothesis - Moving Savanna Perceptual Preference Hypothesis Beyond Savanna

We provide an extension of the Savanna perceptual preference hypothesis ("Savanna Hypothesis"), supposing that interaction with landscapes offering survival advantage for human groups during evolution might have gradually evolved to permanent landscape preferences. This additional support is based on the palaeoenvironmental analysis of the spread of modern humans into Europe in the late Pleistocene and their living environments there. Our hypothesis is that the preference for park-like landscapes after African savannas experienced a kind of "refreshment" in the Pleistocene. Thus, preferences for certain types of natural settings and scenes may have a more continuous evolutionary history than previously thought. The extended Savanna Hypothesis termed "Pleistocene Hypothesis" might stimulate further work on this important topic linking human evolution and human environmental preferences.

Perceived Benefits and Forest Tourists Consumption Intention: Environmental Protection Attitude and Resource Utilization Attitude as Mediators

Establishing a relationship model between environmental protection and resource utilization attitude and consumption intention is the key to promoting the sustainable development of forest tourism. From the standpoint of the Stimulus–Organism–Response (SOR) framework, the purpose of this study is to explore the complex causal relationships between perceived benefits, attitudes toward environmental protection, resource utilization attitudes, and consumption intentions in the context of forest tourism. The research data have been collected using a questionnaire survey of 436 tourists at Siming Mountain in the suburbs of Ningbo city, China. Furthermore, it is analyzed by structural equation modeling. The results indicate a positive correlation between the perceived benefits and tourists’ consumption intention that is mediated by the tourists’ attitude toward resource utilization. Although the independent mediating effect of environmental protection attitude is not supported in this study, both attitudes have played a chain-mediating role between perceived benefit and consumption intention. This study contributes to the existing knowledge by measuring the impact of perceived benefits and environmental attitudes of forest tourists on consumption intentions.

Sociodemographic Determinants of Poles' Attitudes towards the Forest during the COVID-19 Pandemic

Attitudes towards forest ecosystems have been changing together with human needs, which is amplified with society's increasing need to spend recreation time in the forest. The phenomenon has been particularly visible during the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim of this study was to determine the attitude of Poles to forests during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research was based on (1) a sociodemographic background questionnaire that consisted of questions about the independent variables and (2) the LAS scale-an independently prepared tool for measuring attitudes towards the forest. In the survey, 1025 people participated (673 women). The age of the subjects was between 19 and 68. The attitude towards the forest was analysed in three dimensions: Benefits, Involvement, and Fears. The Mann-Whitney U test and Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks were used for statistical analysis. Women and people with primary education expressed the most fears connected with going to the forest. Men and people living in the countryside and in small towns, as well as respondents who were professionally active and performing work connected with forests were the most involved in exploring the forest and working for its benefit. Concerning the forest, concerned women, people from the highest age group, respondents with university education, and white-collar workers notice the most benefits from recreational activities in the forest.

Effect of Forest Therapy on Depression and Anxiety: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to summarize the effects of forest therapy on depression and anxiety using data obtained from randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental studies. We searched SCOPUS, PubMed, MEDLINE(EBSCO), Web of science, Embase, Korean Studies Information Service System, Research Information Sharing Service, and DBpia to identify relevant studies published from January 1990 to December 2020 and identified 20 relevant studies for the synthesis. The methodological quality of eligible primary studies was assessed by ROB 2.0 and ROBINS-I. Most primary studies were conducted in the Republic of Korea except for one study in Poland. Overall, forest therapy significantly improved depression (Hedges’s g = 1.133; 95% confidence interval (CI): −1.491 to −0.775) and anxiety (Hedges’s g = 1.715; 95% CI: −2.519 to −0.912). The quality assessment resulted in five RCTs that raised potential concerns in three and high risk in two. Fifteen quasi-experimental studies raised high for nine quasi-experimental studies and moderate for six studies. In conclusion, forest therapy is preventive management and non-pharmacologic treatment to improve depression and anxiety. However, the included studies lacked methodological rigor and required more comprehensive geographic application. Future research needs to determine optimal forest characteristics and systematic activities that can maximize the improvement of depression and anxiety.

The Relationship between the Restorative Perception of the Environment and the Physiological and Psychological Effects of Different Types of Forests on University Students

Short-term exposure to a forest environment is beneficial to human physiological and psychological health. However, there is little known about the relationship between the restorative perception of environment and physiological and psychological restoration achieved by experiencing the forest environment. This study evaluated the relationship between the restorative perception of different types of forests and human physiological and psychological effects. A sample of 30 young adult students from Beijing Forestry University was exposed to coniferous, deciduous, and mixed forests as well as an urban site. Restorative perception of the environment was measured using the PRS questionnaire. Restorative effects were measured using physiological indicators (blood pressure and heart rate) and three psychological questionnaires (Restorative Outcome Scale; Subjective Vitality Scale; Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale). The results demonstrated the following: (1) There were significant differences in the perceived restorative power of the three types of forests, with the highest level in the mixed forest, followed by the coniferous forest and the deciduous forest. (2) All types of forests were beneficial to physiological and psychological restoration. The mixed forest had the greatest effect in lowering blood pressure and heart rate as well as increasing vitality, while the coniferous forest had the strongest increases in psychological restoration and positive mental health. (3) The level of perceived restorative power of environment was positively related to the physiological and psychological restoration. These findings provide practical evidence for forest therapy that can maximize the restorative potential of forests.

Physiological and Psychological Effects of Nature Experiences in Different Forests on Young People

Many studies have proved that having nature experiences in forests is conducive to human physiological and psychological health. However, currently there is little research focusing on the effects of forest characteristics and the experiential characteristics of nature experiences on changes in health. In the study, three types of forest (mixed forest; deciduous forest; coniferous forest) and an urban site were used to measure the effects of these environments on participants’ physiological and psychological restoration after nature experience activities (sitting and walking activities). The study participants were 30 young adult students from Beijing Forestry University. Restorative effects were measured by physiological indicators (blood pressure and heart rate) and four psychological questionnaires (Profile of Mood States (POMS); Restorative Outcome Scale (ROS); Subjective Vitality Scale (SVS); Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale (WEMWBS)). Results demonstrated that all types of forest were beneficial to lower blood pressure and heart rate as well as to reduce negative feelings while boosting positive emotions. The mixed forest was more effective in lowering blood pressure and heart rate as well as increasing vitality. The levels of restoration and positive mental health increased significantly, while all subscales of the POMS (with the exception of vigor) decreased greatly in the coniferous forest. Relative to the sitting activity, obvious decreases in blood pressure and negative emotions were observed, while significant increases in restoration, vitality and positive mental health were observed after the walking activity. In conclusion, the impact on subjects’ health restoration varied with different forest characteristics, and the experiential characteristics of exposure may be helpful for creating supportive interventions and lifting the benefits of forest therapy as people interact with the forest.

The Development of a Health Promotion Program for Unmarried Mothers Living in Residential Facilities Using Urban Forests: An Intervention Mapping Approach Based on the Transtheoretical Model

Unmarried mothers living in residential facilities (UMLFs) in Korea face complex and challenging physical, psychological, and socioeconomic issues. This study developed a physical and mental health promotion program using urban forests for UMLFs based on the transtheoretical model and evidence. We utilized an intervention mapping approach (IMA) and assessed the needs of UMLFs by analyzing previous quantitative studies. Moreover, we conducted a qualitative hermeneutic phenomenological study involving nine participants. Based on the needs assessment, important and changeable determinants were identified; further, the program performance and change objectives were classified to achieve the program goals and establish the intervention strategy. We found that physical activity using forests, self-reflection using metaphors, five-sense activities, achievement activities using natural objects, building interpersonal relationships in the forest, and designing future plans, are desirable methods for improving the health of UMLFs. The IMA was deemed appropriate for the systematic development of health promotion programs for UMLFs through clear links among change objectives, theoretical methods, and practice strategies. These results should be applied to future intervention studies.

The Psychological and Physical Effects of Forests on Human Health: A Systematic Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses

BACKGROUND

The aim of this systematic review of systematic reviews was to identify, summarise, and synthesise the available evidence of systematic reviews (SRs) and meta-analyses (MAs) on the preventative and therapeutic psychological and physical effects of forest-based interventions. Methods: Both bibliographic databases and grey literature sources were searched for SRs and MAs published until May 2020. Eight databases were searched for relevant articles: MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, PsycInfo, CiNii, EBSCO, and Scopus. Grey literature was sourced from Google Scholar and other web-based search tools. SRs and MAs that included randomised controlled (RCT), non-randomised controlled (NRCT), and non-controlled trials (NCT) on health-related effects of forest-based interventions were eligible if they had searched at least two databases. The methodological quality of eligible reviews was assessed by AMSTAR-2. Results: We evaluated 11 systematic reviews covering 131 different primary intervention studies, mostly from Asian countries, three of which included supplementary meta-analyses. The quality assessment resulted in moderate confidence in the results of two reviews, low confidence in six, and critically low confidence in three. The results of the eight moderate and low-rated reviews indicated that forest-based interventions are beneficial to the cardiovascular system, immune system, and mental health (in the areas of stress, depression, anxiety, and negative emotions). Evidence for the effectiveness of forest-based interventions on metabolic parameters in adults, the severity of atopic dermatitis in children and adolescents, and social skills and sociality in healthy primary school children was weak. Discussion/Conclusions: Evidence suggests beneficial therapeutic effects of forest-based interventions on hypertension, stress, and mental-health disorders, such as depression and anxiety. Changes in immunological and inflammatory parameters after forest therapy should be verified in bio-geographically native forests. In the future, more attention should be paid to careful planning, implementation, and reporting of primary studies and to systematic reviews on the effects of forest-based interventions.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Healthcare Benefits of Different Forest Types: A Case Study in Shimen National Forest Park, China

Studies have shown that contact with nature plays a crucial role in the amelioration of human health. Forest therapy has recently received widespread attention as a novel and subsidiary treatment approach for stress recovery and health promotion. However, there is a lack of ample research on the comprehensive evaluation of the forest healthcare benefits. Moreover, it is not entirely clear what kind of forest types and seasons are suitable for forest therapy activities and how healthcare forests should be constructed and managed. From September 2019 to January 2020 and May to August 2020., five forest types of Phyllostachys edulis forest, subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest, Liquidambar formosana forest, Cunninghamia lanceolata forest, coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest and a forestless control group in Shimen National Forest Park, Guangzhou City, Guangdong Province, China were selected. Variations in the character of negative air ion concentration, air oxygen content, human comfort index and phytoncide relative content were analyzed. Principal component analysis and systematic clustering were used to construct forest comprehensive healthcare index and evaluation grade in order to assess the healthcare benefits of different forest types. In terms of negative air ion concentration, the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest was far ahead of the other forest types throughout the year, while the forestless control group was the worst. All stands reached the annual maximum in summer, followed by spring, autumn and winter. From the perspective of air oxygen content, summer > spring > autumn > winter, among them, all forest stands clearly exceeded the normal atmospheric oxygen content (20.9%) in the first three quarters. Moreover, the air oxygen content of coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest was the highest in five forest types; the forestless control group was the lowest. Judging from the human comfort index, in the whole year, all forest types, including the forestless group, were at the comfortable level and above. However, the five forest types still differed greatly in diverse seasons, among which Phyllostachys edulis forest and subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest were superior to Liquidambar formosana forest, Cunninghamia lanceolata forest, coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest in spring and summer, while it was in reverse in autumn and winter. In view of the phytoncide relative content, the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest was the highest, followed by the Cunninghamia lanceolata forest. The relative content of phytoncide was released more in summer, second, by spring, autumn and winter. Furthermore, establishing forest comprehensive healthcare index (FCHI = 0.1NAICi + 0.35AOCi + 0.27HCIi + 0.28PRCi), according to the FCHI value, it was divided into five rating levels. Overall, the comprehensive healthcare index of the five forest stands distinctly outperformed the forestless control group in all seasons. In addition, the five forest types were at level I in spring and summer. From the comprehensive data of the whole year, the comprehensive healthcare index of the coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forest was the best, followed by the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest. The forest environment has a favorable influence on the human body and mind, so it is suggested that citizens go to the forest environment regularly for healthcare and physical and mental washing. In terms of the forest healthcare benefits, the best seasons for forest therapy in Shimen National Forest Park are spring and summer; autumn is suitable as well. When planning and constructing the forest therapy bases in Shimen National Forest Park in the future, coniferous and broad-leaved mixed forests should be allocated more in the stand transformation to promote forest healthcare benefits. Protecting and developing the landscape resources of the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forests should be paid close attention, as well as making rational use of their health activity space.