Evaluating Animal-Based Foods and Plant-Based Alternatives Using Multi-Criteria and SWOT Analyses

Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) for sustainability assessment in food sector. A systematic literature review on methods, indicators and tools

In the last decades, several studies have highlighted the significant impacts of the food sector. Therefore, enhancing sustainability within this sector has become of paramount importance. A crucial step towards achieving this goal involves the definition and implementation of effective sustainability metric and measurements. In this regard, the adoption of multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) methods can be seen as one of the most suitable and promising approach to comprehensively capture the complex and broad-ranging effects of agricultural practices and food supply chains. In such context, a systematic review of the scientific literature on multi-criteria approaches and tools for measuring the sustainability of food supply chains (harvest and post-harvest stages) has been carried out, resulting in the selection and analysis of 42 articles. To delve into the selected articles, three main areas of focus have been identified. The first about MCDA methods and their features, revealing the most adopted methods for sustainability assessments of food supply chains. The second, focusing on the participatory approach, led to the definition of a stakeholder's engagement map, highlighting the typology of stakeholders involved, the reasons of their involvement and engagement methods. Lastly, the third focus is related to the analysis and classification of indicators adopted in each study and the sustainability dimensions to which they refer to. The results of the present review study provide a comprehensive overview of the essential aspects to be considered when developing a MCDA for sustainability assessment in the food sector, serving as a valuable resource for both scholars and practitioners.

Microencapsulated Asiatic Pennywort (Centella asiatica) fortified chocolate oat milk beverage: Formulation, polyphenols content, and consumer acceptability

This study investigated the use of microencapsulated Asiatic pennywort (Centella asiatica) (CA) as a functional ingredient to formulate a novel chocolate oat milk beverage. The main objectives of the study were to characterize and encapsulate bioactive components from CA and to determine the polyphenol content and sensory properties of the beverage. CA extract was microencapsulated using maltodextrin and gum Arabic as carriers and subsequently freeze-dried to produce microcapsules. Microencapsulated CA was incorporated into chocolate oat milk at varying concentrations. Polyphenol content of the beverages was quantified using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Consumer acceptability and sensory perception of the beverages were evaluated through an acceptance test and a check-all-that-apply test, respectively, to assess the sensory characteristics of the chocolate oat milk beverage. CA fortified chocolate oat milk contained fourteen polyphenols. Increasing the concentration of microencapsulated CA led to an increase in the polyphenol content of the beverage. Among the identified polyphenols, asiatic acid and asiaticoside stood out as the unique and most abundant compounds in CA (p < 0.05). Additionally, the incorporation of cocoa powder into the beverage further contributed to the polyphenol content, introducing bioactive compounds such as benzoic acid, caffeic acid, catechin, chlorogenic acid, kaempferol, luteolin, madecassic acid, p-coumaric acid, and quercetin. Evaluation of consumer acceptability revealed that chocolate oat milk beverages containing 2% and 4% microencapsulated CA were liked by consumers. However, beverages with higher concentrations of CA were perceived as less acceptable, characterized by grassy, bitter, and earthy attributes. In conclusion, this study demonstrates the potential of microencapsulated CA as a functional ingredient in chocolate oat milk beverages. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: This study reveals new insights on the microencapsulation of bioactive compounds in CA, proposing its potential as a novel functional ingredient in food and beverage applications in Western markets. The study revealed microencapsulated CA retained polyphenols in CA including asiatic acid and asiaticoside responsible for its bioactive properties. Consumer perception of CA added to oat milk revealed that it can be added at an acceptable level of 4%; however, higher amounts can decrease consumer acceptability. As practitioners explore the incorporation of CA as a functional component in food products, it is crucial to explore preservation techniques for the sensitive bioactive components while balancing the optimal amount of CA to enhance overall consumer liking.

A comparative analysis of nutritional quality, amino acid profile, and nutritional supplementations in plant-based products and their animal-based counterparts in the UK

Plant-based (PB) food products have surged in popularity over the past decade. Available PB products in the UK market were extracted from NielsenIQ Brandbank and compared with animal-based (AB) counterparts in their nutrient contents and calculated Nutri-Scores. The amino acid contents of four beef products and their PB alternatives were analysed by LC-MS/MS. PB products consistently exhibited significantly higher fibre content across all food groups. Protein was significantly higher in AB products from all food groups except beef and ready meals. PB products were more likely to have higher Nutri-Scores compared to AB counterparts, albeit with greater score variability within each food group. Nutrient fortifications were primarily focused on dairy and ready meals; the most supplemented nutrient was vitamin B12 (found in 15% of all products). A higher proportion of EAAs in relation to total protein content was observed in all beef products.

Plant-Based Meat Analogues and Consumer Interest in 3D-Printed Products: A Mini-Review

The markets for plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs) are growing worldwide, showing the increasing consumer demand for and acceptance of these new products. Three-dimensional (3D) food printing is a new technology with huge potential for printing products customised to suit consumers' wants and needs. There is a broad acceptance from consumers regarding the safety and desirability of consuming food products that are produced using 3D printing. As this is a new technology, consumers must be provided with relevant information from a trusted source, with further research needing to be conducted within the context of the identified market and culture. By embracing the strength of customisation of 3D printing and coupling this with the global demand for plant-based products, 3D printed PBMAs could be a future challenger to the currently popular production method of extrusion. Therefore, this article reviews consumer interests in PBMAs and summarises opportunities for using 3D printing technology to produce plant-based meat analogues.

Gen Z's Willingness to Adopt Plant-Based Diets: Empirical Evidence from Greece, India, and the UK

Comprising the largest population cohort on this planet, Gen Z presents a future-oriented consumer segment driven by climate change and food. This study sought to investigate Gen Z's perceptions toward plant-based foods and diets and explore the relationship that attitude components, meal preparation involvement, personal and lifestyle factors, and perceived barriers in adopting a plant-based diet have with willingness to adopt green-eating practices. Using cross-sectional data from university students in Greece, India, and the UK, various tools were employed to determine the factors influencing youths' consumer behavior toward animal-protein substitutes. PCA indicated the underlying dimensions of students' viewpoints on plant-based foods, whereas hierarchical and k-means clustering provided the cluster structure. An ordered probit model was estimated to delineate Gen Z's willingness to adopt plant-based diets and distinguish among mostly unwilling, somewhat willing, and mostly willing youths. Our findings identified two consumer segments, namely proponents and opponents of plant-based foods and diets, with statistically significant differences in the perceived health benefits of plant-based diets, attachment to animal-based proteins, perceived exclusion of animal-based foods, dissatisfaction with plant-based foods' attributes, and demand for ensuring adequate protein intake. The ordered probit model estimates showed that there is a "homogeneity" in the factors influencing youths' intention to adopt plant-based diets, with attitude components, meal preparation indicators, perceived barriers to eating "green", and personal factors, such as self-assessed knowledge of healthy eating and physical activity, being strongly associated with students' willingness to switch to plant-based diets in all three countries. Mapping potential obstacles and enablers in terms of shifting to more green-eating behaviors, our findings could add information to better understand the factors affecting food choice and youths' transition to a more sustainable lifestyle.

Exploring Consumer Preferences and Challenges in Hybrid Meat Products: A Conjoint Analysis of Hotdogs

Plant-based meat has been the primary strategy to reducing meat consumption. While this category has demonstrated success, with the market value estimated to reach USD 20 billion by 2023, the subsequent reduction in meat consumption has not been proportionate. An alternative approach is hybrid products, which are thought to produce products that more closely resemble meat products. However, whether consumers will be willing to purchase hybrid products remains uncertain. Therefore, the present study uses a conjoint analysis approach to assess the product features driving the selection of a hybrid hotdog. This approach uncovers factors driving consumers' purchase intentions for hybrid meat products when offered as a choice against 100% plant-based and 100% beef products. In an online survey, participants (n = 454; 45.6% female) were asked to select the product they would be most willing to purchase, varying in four characteristics: protein source, price, fat content, and price. Following this task, participants answered questions related to meat attachment, food neophobia, health, ecological, social, and moral motives regarding food consumption. The results revealed that protein source was the most important factor driving product selection, followed by price, fat, and packaging claims (35%, 24%, 21%, and 20% relative importance, respectively). In this study, hybrid hotdogs were the least preferred to beef and plant-based (-16, -2.5, and 18 part-worth utility, respectively). These product-specific attributes (protein, fat, and price) had distinct relationships with the choices of hybrid, plant-based, and hybrid hotdogs, with these factors together explaining slightly more variability in the selection of hybrid (9%) compared to plant-based (7%) and beef hotdogs (4%). For hybrid hotdogs, protein had the greatest influence (B = -1.2) followed by fat (B = -0.8) and price (B = -0.5). Interestingly, person-related parameters (health, meat attachment, ethics, and food neophobia) had no relationship with the selection of hybrid hotdogs, contrary to plant-based (7%) and beef hotdogs (5%). This influence of the different parameters on the selection of hybrid meat is thought to be due to the lack of consumer knowledge and familiarity with hybrid products. The current understanding of plant-based products may not correspond to hybrid products. Engaging with consumers during the development of these products is critical to ensure consumer acceptance and thus support the transition to a more sustainable diet.

The Effect of Type of Vegetable Fat and Addition of Antioxidant Components on the Physicochemical Properties of a Pea-Based Meat Analogue

In recent years, interest in functional foods and meat analogues has increased. This study investigated the effect of the type of vegetable fat and ingredients with antioxidant activity on the properties of a meat analogue based on textured pea protein. The possibility of using acai oil (AO), canola oil (CO) and olive oil (OO); propolis extract (P); buckwheat honey (H); and jalapeno pepper extract (JE) was investigated. The texture, colour and selected chemical parameters of plant-based burgers were analysed. Results showed that burgers from control group had the lowest hardness, while burgers with honey had the highest. The highest MUFA content was found in samples with olive oil. Samples with honey were characterised by the highest content of polyphenols, flavonoids and antioxidant capacity. The highest overall acceptability was observed in burgers from the JE-CO group. Therefore, it is possible to use selected ingredients with antioxidant activity in the recipe for a plant-based burger with high product acceptability.

How Different Dimensions Shape the Definition of Meat Alternative Products: A Scoping Review of Evidence between 2000 and 2021

Consumer awareness of meat-associated health and environmental risks is increasing and motivates a shift toward consuming meat alternatives. This is also reflected in efforts invested in studying meat alternatives from the perspective of nutritional, environmental, and consumer sciences. Despite shared research interest, these studies cannot be readily compared and interpreted because there is no clear consensus on what meat alternatives are. Scholarly debates on acceptance, nutritional value, and environmental advantages of meat alternatives would benefit from a clear definition of meat alternatives. With the goal of defining meat alternatives, relevant scientific literature in the past 10 years was systematically searched and screened guided by the scoping review Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension. The initial search resulted in >100,000 hits, which was reduced to 2465 papers. Next, titles and abstracts were scrutinized using Rayyan.ai, resulting in 193 articles considered for the present review. Article screening and data extraction was performed using ATLAS.ti software. Three major themes were identified to define meat alternative products including: 1) producing and sourcing of ingredients; 2) product characteristics (that is, sensory characteristics, nutritional value, and health profile, social and environmental sustainability profile); and 3) consumer characteristics concerning the marketing and consumption context. Meat alternatives are multifaceted, that is, certain products can be considered as meat alternatives in some context, but not in another context. For any product, it is impossible to unequivocally state that it is a meat alternative. There is a lack of consensus from the diverse literature on what constitutes meat alternatives. However, products may be qualified as meat alternatives according to three key criteria as proposed in a taxonomy: 1) production and sourcing, 2) product characteristics, and/or 3) consumption. We recommend researchers (and other stakeholders) to do so as it allows for better informed future discussions of meat alternatives.

Nutritional Assessment of Plant-Based Meat Alternatives: A Comparison of Nutritional Information of Plant-Based Meat Alternatives in Spanish Supermarkets

Since the classification of processed meat as carcinogenic by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) in 2015, an increase in consumption of plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs) has been observed worldwide. This occurs in a context characterized by concern for health, animal welfare, and sustainability; however, evidence of their nutritional quality is still limited. Therefore, our objective was to evaluate the nutritional profile and processing degree of PBMAs available in Spain. In 2020, products from seven Spanish supermarkets were analyzed for their nutritional content and ingredients. Of the 148 products, the majority were low in sugars but moderate in carbohydrates, total and saturated fat, and high in salt. The main vegetable protein sources were soy (91/148) and wheat gluten (42/148). Comparatively, 43/148 contained animal protein, the most common being egg. Overall, PBMAs had a long list of ingredients and additives, and they were classified as ultra-processed foods (UPFs) according to the NOVA system. This study shows that the PBMAs available in Spanish supermarkets have a variable nutritional composition within and between categories. Further research is needed to determine if replacing meat with these UPFs could be a good alternative towards healthier and more sustainable dietary patterns.

A systematic review on drivers influencing consumption of edible mushrooms and innovative mushroom-containing products

Edible mushrooms are attractive for their low calorie content, high-quality protein, low lipid levels, and therapeutic properties; furthermore, mushroom-containing products are gaining interest in light of the world's increasing need for protein source diversification to meet the global protein demand. At present, there is a strong heterogeneity worldwide in terms of mushroom consumption and, to date, few surveys exist on the factors influencing this. This review, through the PICo and PRISMA statements, identified and analysed 31 papers to answer the question: What are the determinants that drive consumers towards the consumption and purchase of edible mushrooms and novel products containing mushrooms? The expected outcome is to provide an overview of key research issues used thus far, identify current research gaps, and discuss implications for industries and policy-makers. Consumer attitude - including fear of poisoning - towards innovative mushroom-containing products has been poorly analysed in Europe and USA; what we do know is that processed mushrooms appeared more attractive to European and American mainlanders. Few studies have considered the ethnicity of participants, which is an important factor since mushrooms and their culinary applications appear to be known mainly thanks to family tradition. New strategies are needed to increase people's familiarity with these products and to contrast neophobic phenomena. If mushroom price is an obstacle for both companies and purchasers, intrinsic characteristics such as umami taste and positive health and sustainability benefits are strengths to consider in the development of the supply chain, public education, and information initiatives. This should be useful in directing consumer preferences towards meat alternatives containing mushrooms.

Stakeholder Beliefs about Alternative Proteins: A Systematic Review

In recent years, a great deal of research has been conducted on consumers' attitudes and beliefs in favor and against alternative proteins (AP). By contrast, a much more limited research effort has been devoted to understanding stakeholders' point of view. The current work provides a first systematic review of the existing literature on stakeholders' beliefs towards alternative protein sources. Moreover, a secondary content analysis was carried out on the selected studies, providing an overview of the major themes emerging from the existing literature in relation to utilitarian, normative, and control beliefs that stakeholders hold towards AP. Results showed that stakeholders' beliefs are very different from those that emerged from previous research on consumers' views. Overall, stakeholders appear much more aware, compared to consumers, of the implications of using alternative proteins in relation to the main pillars of sustainability (economic, environmental, social). Stakeholders' beliefs were grouped into 13 categories, such as "economics", "consumers", and "rules". With respect to future scenarios, they attribute an important role to political institutions, with respect to both economic and communication aspects, which they consider crucial to overcome persistent consumer skepticism.

Plant-Based Innovations for the Transition to Sustainability: A Bibliometric and in-Depth Content Analysis

Plants maintain the ecological equilibrium of the earth and stabilize the ecosystem. Today, traditional commodities and new value-added markets can be served simultaneously. There is significant biosource and bioprocess innovation for biobased industrial products. Furthermore, plant-based innovation is associated with the transition to sustainability. This study performed a bibliometric and in-depth content analysis to review plant-based innovations in the research field between 1995 and 2022. A set of 313 articles was identified from the Scopus and Web of Science databases. Different analytical scientometric tools (topic mapping and overlay visualization networks) were used to analyze 124 articles; the most influential countries, institutions, authors, journals and articles were identified. Through in-depth studies, based on the grounded theory approach, five leading research areas related to plant-based innovation were determined: (1) agricultural/environmental innovation, (2) plant-based food or feed innovation, (3) innovation within the medical/pharmaceutical research area, (4) technology-related innovation and (5) economic/business aspects of plant-based innovations. Future research directions include exploring less examined and new topics, such as the sustainability implications of incorporating various plant-based foods and Industry 4.0 in plant-based innovation, and linking and developing findings from different research areas.

Introducing the SWOT Scorecard Technique to Analyse Diversified AE Collective Schemes with a DEX Model

Comparing diversified agri-environmental (AE) collective schemes in their capability to provide AE public goods faces great challenges, mostly because of their diversified nature and relatively new way to approach the provision of AE public goods. The state of the art is that there are not yet any common quantitative indicators or data to build a multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) model to compare it with other practices and to set the strategic plan for the scheme’s improvement. Nevertheless, some qualitative common data of SWOT analyses are available, but the question remains how to simultaneously compare several SWOT analyses in an MCDM model. This study introduces a new way of transforming the qualitative results of SWOT analyses to fit in the MCDM Decision Expert (DEX) model using a special transformation technique SWOT scorecard. The SWOT scorecard evaluates the importance of qualitative results of several SWOT analyses simultaneously in a quantitative way, describing with points how supportive the environment is to each criterion in the DEX model. The SWOT scorecard keeps track of the original results from SWOT analysis and considers the diversity of AE schemes, which results in an appearance of the convergence points. This gives a key for comparing the AE collective schemes in providing AE public goods. Furthermore, it gives a solution for discussing the synergy between aspects that affect AE public goods provision for every AE scheme investigated. The technique is tested via five AE collective schemes in the DEXi program and gives deeper insight into factors that affect each scheme’s performance.

Meat Analogues in the Perspective of Recent Scientific Research: A Review

There are many reasons why consumers and food producers are looking for alternatives to meat and meat products, which includes the following: health, environmental or ethical aspects. This study reviews recent scientific reports on meat analogues. The scope of the review includes the following: formulation and nutritional value; health safety and legal regulations; manufacturing and processing technologies including the latest developments in this area; product availability on the food market; and consumer attitudes towards meat analogues. The analysis of the literature data identified technological challenges, particularly in improving consumer acceptability of meat analogues. Among the risks and limitations associated with the production of meat analogues, the following were identified: contamination from raw materials and the risk of harmful by-products due to intensive processing; legal issues of product nomenclature; and consumer attitudes towards substituting meat with plant-based alternatives. The need for further research in this area, particularly on the nutritional value and food safety of meat analogues, was demonstrated.

Digital Technology, Knowledge Level, and Food Safety Governance: Implications for National Healthcare System

Exploring the intrinsic relationship between digital technology and the efficiency of food safety supervision contributes to a better understanding of the role of digital technology in food safety supervision and how to maximize its influence. This study employed sample data from 31 regions in China between 2015 and 2017 for an empirical analysis of the correlation between the two and to examine the moderating effects of the knowledge levels of food producers and consumers. The results show that the development of digital technology contributes to enhancing the efficiency of food safety supervision. In this process, the higher the knowledge level of consumers, the greater the positive promotional effect of digital technology. On the contrary, when the knowledge level of producers is higher, it is not conducive to enhancing the effect of digital technology on the efficiency of food safety supervision. The author holds the view that this is related to the fact that employees in the food production and manufacturing industry have insufficient moral and legal knowledge. This not only limits the effect of digital technology on enhancing the efficiency of food safety supervision, but also opens the door to illegal production for some unprincipled producers. The policy implications are that digital technology should be used to improve food safety supervision, the moral and legal knowledge of food producers should be improved, and consumers should be encouraged to use digital technology more in the pursuit of food safety. Implications for national healthcare system would be also discussed in our paper.

Agri-Food Contexts in Mediterranean Regions: Contributions to Better Resources Management

The agri-food frameworks have specific characteristics (production units with small dimensions and in great number with implications in the respective markets) that call for adjusted approaches, even more so when they are considered in Mediterranean contexts (where global warming will have relevant impacts). In fact, the Mediterranean regions and countries have particular specificities (due to their climate conditions) that distinguish them from their neighbours. This is particularly true in Europe, for example, where the southern countries present socioeconomic dynamics (associated with the respective public debt) that are different from those identified in the northern regions. From this perspective, it seems pertinent to analyse the several dimensions of the agri-food systems in the Mediterranean area. To achieve these objectives, a search was carried out on 26 December 2020 on the scientific databases Web of Science Core Collection (WoS) and Scopus for the topics “agr*-food” and “Mediterranean”. These keywords were selected after a previous literature survey and to capture the agri-food contexts in Mediterranean regions. The keyword “agr*-food” was considered in this way to allow for a wider search (including “agri-food”, “agro-food”, etc.). Considering only articles (excluding proceeding papers, book chapters, and books, because in some cases it is difficult to access the entire content of the document), 100 and 117 documents were obtained from the WoS and Scopus, respectively. After removing the duplicated studies and taking into account the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) approach, 137 documents were surveyed through a literature review. As main insights, several dimensions embedded in the concept of agri-food were highlighted, from those related to heritage subjects to natural assets. On the other hand, the following subtopics were identified: agri-food dynamics and sustainability, agriculture and agri-food systems, agri-chains and food consumption, and food production and composition impact on agri-chains. Stressing the gaps in the scientific literature, related to the topics here addressed, there are possibilities to better explore the several dimensions and solutions offered by the new developments associated with smart agriculture and agriculture 4.0, specifically for the Mediterranean contexts and their challenges. Finally, to complement the PRISMA methodologies, an MB2MBA2 (Methodology Based on Benchmarking of Metadata, from scientific databases, and Bibliometric Assessment and Analysis) approach is suggested to carry out systematic literature reviews, based on bibliometric analysis.