A Review of the Occurrence of Alpha-Emitting Radionuclides in Wild Mushrooms

A review of recent advancements in Actinium-225 labeled compounds and biomolecules for therapeutic purposes

In nuclear medicine, cancers that cannot be cured or can only be treated partially by traditional techniques like surgery or chemotherapy are killed by ionizing radiation as a form of therapeutic treatment. Actinium-225 is an alpha-emitting radionuclide that is highly encouraging as a therapeutic approach and more promising for targeted alpha therapy (TAT). Actinium-225 is the best candidate for tumor cells treatment and has physical characteristics such as high (LET) linear energy transfer (150 keV per μm), half-life (t1/2  = 9.92d), and short ranges (400-100 μm) which prevent the damage of normal healthy tissues. The introduction of various new radiopharmaceuticals and radioisotopes has significantly assisted the advancement of nuclear medicine. Ac-225 radiopharmaceuticals continuously demonstrate their potential as targeted alpha therapeutics. 225 Ac-labeled radiopharmaceuticals have confirmed their importance in medical and clinical areas by introducing [225 Ac]Ac-PSMA-617, [225 Ac]Ac-DOTATOC, [225 Ac]Ac-DOTA-substance-P, reported significantly improved response in patients with prostate cancer, neuroendocrine, and glioma, respectively. The development of these radiopharmaceuticals required a suitable buffer, incubation time, optimal pH, and reaction temperature. There is a growing need to standardize quality control (QC) testing techniques such as radiochemical purity (RCP). This review aims to summarize the development of the Ac-225 labeled compounds and biomolecules. The current state of their reported resulting clinical applications is also summarized as well.

Vitamin D from UV-Irradiated Mushrooms as a Way for Vitamin D Supplementation: A Systematic Review on Classic and Nonclassic Effects in Human and Animal Models

Recent literature has shown that vitamin D, in addition to its well-known activity on the skeleton, has many positive effects on health. Unfortunately, it is not easy to meet intake needs solely with food. Mushrooms could provide a valid way to achieve this goal, because they are one of the few sources of vitamin D. The aim of this systematic review was to summarize what has been reported in the literature on the treatment of animal and human models with irradiated commercial mushrooms, with particular attention paid to the effects on clinical outcomes associated with the classical and nonclassical vitamin D functions. A total of 18 articles were selected. Six studies were conducted on human samples, while twelve were focused on animal models. The six studies conducted in humans involved a large number of subjects (663), but the treatment period was relatively short (1–6 months). Furthermore, the treatment dosage was different in the various groups (600–3800 IU/day). Probably for this reason, the studies did not demonstrate clinical efficacy on the parameters evaluated (cognitive functions, muscle system/function, metabolic syndrome). Indeed, those studies demonstrated an efficacy in increasing the blood levels of 25(OH)D2, but not in increasing the levels of 25(OH)D total. In 9 of 12 studies conducted on the animal model, however, a clinical efficacy on bone metabolism, inflammation, and cognitive performance was demonstrated. The results of this systematic review indicate that the intake of vitamin D from irradiated mushrooms could possibly help to meet vitamin D needs, but the dosage and the time of treatment tested need to be evaluated. Therefore, studies conducted in humans for longer periods than the studies carried out up to now are necessary, with defined dosages, in order to also evaluate the clinical efficacy demonstrated in animal models both for the classical (bone metabolism) and nonclassical (muscle function, cognitive performance, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activities) effects of vitamin D.

On 210Po and 210Pb in algae diet supplements - The assessed radiation hazard of aquatic superfoods

Algae are believed to give health benefits. However, the studies showed they contain toxic elements, including radionuclides, and may affect human health. The study presents the values of activity concentrations of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb in the algae supplements available worldwide for adults. The activity concentrations (Bq/kg dw) ranged from 0.07 to 14.5 (²¹⁰Po) and from 0.06 to 8.48 (²¹⁰Pb). Also, the effective radiation doses and the cancer risk from ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb decay ingested with analyzed algal supplements have been assessed. The highest values of annual effective doses have been estimated for ²¹⁰Po in the recommended portion of Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) from China (59.7 μSv/year) and Diatomaceous earth from the USA (50.4 μSv/year). The cancer morbidity and mortality risk ranged from 10^-4 to 10^-8. The study indicated the activity concentrations of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb were low, and algae supplements for human consumption could be considered safe food.

Termite Mushrooms (Termitomyces), a Potential Source of Nutrients and Bioactive Compounds Exhibiting Human Health Benefits: A Review

Termite mushrooms have been classified to the genus Termitomyces, family Lyophyllaceae, order Agaricales. These mushrooms form a mutualistic association with termites in the subfamily Macrotermitinae. In fact, all Termitomyces species are edible and have unique food value attributed to their texture, flavour, nutrient content, and beneficial mediational properties. Additionally, Termitomyces have been recognized for their ethno-medicinal importance in various indigenous communities throughout Asia and Africa. Recent studies on Termitomyces have indicated that their bioactive compounds have the potential to fight against certain human diseases such as cancer, hyperlipidaemia, gastroduodenal diseases, and Alzheimer's. Furthermore, they possess various beneficial antioxidant and antimicrobial properties. Moreover, different enzymes produced from Termitomyces have the potential to be used in a range of industrial applications. Herein, we present a brief review of the current findings through an overview of recently published literature involving taxonomic updates, diversity, distribution, ethno-medicinal uses, nutritional value, medicinal importance, and industrial implementations of Termitomyces, as well as its socioeconomic importance.

Marine Bacteria under Low-Intensity Radioactive Exposure: Model Experiments

Radioactive contaminants create problems all over world, involving marine ecosystems, with their ecological importance increasing in the future. The review focuses on bioeffects of a series of alpha and beta emitting radioisotopes (americium-241, uranium-(235 + 238), thorium-232, and tritium) and gamma radiation. Low-intensity exposures are under special consideration. Great attention has been paid to luminous marine bacteria as representatives of marine microorganisms and a conventional bioassay system. This bioassay uses bacterial bioluminescence intensity as the main testing physiological parameter; currently, it is widely applied due to its simplicity and sensitivity. Dependences of the bacterial luminescence response on the exposure time and irradiation intensity were reviewed, and applicability of hormetic or threshold models was discussed. A number of aspects of molecular intracellular processes under exposure to low-intensity radiation were analyzed: (a) changes in the rates of enzymatic processes in bacteria with the bioluminescent system of coupled enzymatic reactions of NADH:FMN-oxidoreductase and bacterial luciferase taken as an example; (b) consumption of an intracellular reducer, NADH; (c) active role of reactive oxygen species; (d) repairing of the DNA damage. The results presented confirm the function of humic substances as natural radioprotectors.

ASSESSMENT OF DOSES FROM INGESTION OF RADIONUCLIDES 40 K, 137CS, 226RA AND 232TH IN EDIBLE COMMERCIAL MUSHROOMS FROM TAIWAN

This study analyzed activity concentration and annual effective dose of radionuclides 40K, 137Cs, 226Ra and 232Th of 44 mushrooms collected from local markets in Taiwan. The 40K activity concentrations were 1570 ± 150 Bq/kg-dw (Agaricus bisporus) > 1084 ± 183 Bq/kg-dw (Flammulina velutipe) > 736 ± 150 Bq/kg-dw (Lentinula edodes). The activity concentrations of 226Ra were 5.04 ± 2.43, 4.00 ± 2.40 and 3.43 ± 2.69 Bq/kg-dw, and 232Th were 3.96 ± 2.18, 3.86 ± 1.43 and 2.90 ± 1.99 Bq/kg-dw for F. velutipe, L. edodes and A. bisporus, respectively. In seven of the 44 samples, 137Cs activity concentrations were detected, and the samples had an average of 1.55 ± 1.75 Bq/kg-dw. The total annual effective dose ranged from 0.90 to 3.50 μSv/y, with an average of 1.94 ± 0.62 μSv/y at an ingestion rate of 0.235 kg-dw/y.

Chromatin and the Cellular Response to Particle Radiation-Induced Oxidative and Clustered DNA Damage

Exposure to environmental ionizing radiation is prevalent, with greatest lifetime doses typically from high Linear Energy Transfer (high-LET) alpha particles via the radioactive decay of radon gas in indoor air. Particle radiation is highly genotoxic, inducing DNA damage including oxidative base lesions and DNA double strand breaks. Due to the ionization density of high-LET radiation, the consequent damage is highly clustered wherein ≥2 distinct DNA lesions occur within 1–2 helical turns of one another. These multiply-damaged sites are difficult for eukaryotic cells to resolve either quickly or accurately, resulting in the persistence of DNA damage and/or the accumulation of mutations at a greater rate per absorbed dose, relative to lower LET radiation types. The proximity of the same and different types of DNA lesions to one another is challenging for DNA repair processes, with diverse pathways often confounding or interplaying with one another in complex ways. In this context, understanding the state of the higher order chromatin compaction and arrangements is essential, as it influences the density of damage produced by high-LET radiation and regulates the recruitment and activity of DNA repair factors. This review will summarize the latest research exploring the processes by which clustered DNA damage sites are induced, detected, and repaired in the context of chromatin.

Possibilities of Using Macrolepiota procera in the Production of Prohealth Food and in Medicine

Parasol mushroom (Macrolepiota procera) is a fungus that is often included in the menu of people looking for replacements for meat products and at the same time appreciating mushrooms. Its fruiting bodies are known for their delicate flavor and aroma. The aim of the publication was to analyze the latest information (mainly from 2015 to 2021) on the chemical composition of the M. procera fruiting bodies and their antioxidant properties. The data on other health-promoting properties and the possibilities of using these mushrooms in medicine were also compiled and summarized, taking into account their antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, regulatory, antidepressant, and anticancer effects. Moreover, the influence of various forms of processing and conservation of raw mushroom on its health-promoting properties was discussed. The possibilities of controlling the quality of both the raw material and the prepared dishes were also discussed. Such an opportunity is offered by the possibility of modifying the growing conditions, in particular, the appropriate selection of the substrate for mushroom cultivation and the deliberate enrichment of its composition with the selected substances, which will then be incorporated into the fungus organism.

137Cs and 40K activity concentrations in edible wild mushrooms from China regions during the 2014–2016 period

Introduction. Contamination by radiocaesium of edible wild mushrooms after major nuclear accidents is a long-lasting process in some regions of the world. Following greater awareness of radioactive pollution in Asia, particularly after the Fukushima accident, this study investigated the radioactivity of 137Cs and 40K contamination in edible wild mushrooms in China. Study objects and methods. The objects of the research were edible wild mushrooms collected during 2014 to 2016, from the Inner Mongolian and Yunnan regions of China. To obtain an insight into any environmental impacts to distant regions of mainland Asia, the mushrooms were analyzed for 137Cs activity. In parallel, the natural activity of 40K was also determined and used to estimate the content of total K. The topsoil underneath the mushrooms was also investigated from a few sites in Bayanhushu in Inner Mongolia in 2015. Results and discussion. The results showed that in 4 to 6 mushrooming seasons after the accident, mushrooms from both regions were only slightly contaminated with 137Cs, which implied negligible consequences. The activity concentrations of 137Cs in dried caps and whole mushrooms in 63 of 70 lots from 26 locations were well below 20 Bq kg–1 dry weight. Two species (Lactarius hygrophoroides L. and Lactarius volemus L.), from Jiulongchi in Yuxi prefecture showed higher 137Cs activities, from 130 ± 5 to 210 ± 13 Bq kg–1 dw in the caps. 40K activities of mushrooms were around two- to three-fold higher. A composite sample of topsoil (0–10 cm layer) from the Bayanhushu site (altitude 920 m a.s.l.) in Inner Mongolia showed 137Cs activity concentration at a low level of 6.8 ± 0.7 Bq kg–1 dw, but it was relatively rich in potassium (40K of 595 ± 41 Bq kg–1 and total K of 17000 ± 1000 mg kg–1 dw). Conclusion. Wild mushrooms from the Yunnan and Inner Mongolia lands only slightly affected with radioactivity from artificial 137Cs. Lack of 134Cs showed negligible impact from Fukushima fallout. Ionizing radiation dose from 137Cs in potential meals was a fraction of 40K radioactivity. The associated dietary exposure to ionizing irradiation from 137Cs and 40K contained in mushrooms from the regions studied was considered negligible and low, respectively. Mushroom species examined in this study are a potentially good source of dietary potassium.

Effect of drying, blanching, pickling and maceration on the fate of 40K, total K and 137Cs in bolete mushrooms and dietary intake

The effects of blanching, blanching and pickling and maceration on the leaching of ¹³⁷Cs and ⁴⁰K from the flesh of three edible bolete mushroom species-Boletus edulis, Leccinum scabrum and Leccinum versipelle-were investigated. Significant (p < 0.05) decreases in activity were observed but varied depending on the treatment. Relative to fresh mushrooms, blanching decreased the activity concentration of ¹³⁷Cs by 15 ± 13%, and of ⁴⁰K, by 16 ± 7%, but blanching and pickling (vinegar) reduced activity more effectively, by 55 ± 8% and 40 ± 20% respectively. The corresponding losses of ¹³⁷Cs and ⁴⁰K through maceration of dried, powdered mushrooms were 38 ± 11% and 35 ± 14% ww, respectively. These results indicate that traditional domestic processing methods may not be as efficient at excluding ¹³⁷Cs radioactivity as shown in some other studies. The activity concentration of ¹³⁷Cs in a typically sized (100 g) portion of a processed mushroom (sourced from nearshore regions of the southern Baltic Sea coast near Gdańsk in 2015) meal was projected to be low, i.e. in the range of 0.51 to 12 Bq kg^-1 ww. The corresponding effective dose of ¹³⁷Cs from blanched, blanched and pickled and macerated mushrooms per capita was also assessed to be low, from 0.001 to 0.010 μSv. Nutritionally, the median concentration of potassium (330 mg) in 100 g portions of blanched or pickled mushrooms would account for around 7% of the adequate adult daily intake.

Radiocaesium in Tricholoma spp. from the Northern Hemisphere in 1971-2016

A considerable amount of data has been published on the accumulation of radiocaesium (¹³⁴Cs and particularly, ¹³⁷Cs) in wild fungi since the first anthropogenically influenced releases into the environment due to nuclear weapon testing, usage and subsequently from major accidents at nuclear power plants in Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011). Wild fungi are particularly susceptible to accumulation of radiocaesium and contamination persists for decades after pollution events. Macromycetes (fruiting bodies, popularly called mushrooms) of the edible fungal species are an important part of the human and forest animal food-webs in many global locations. This review discusses published occurrences of ¹³⁴Cs and ¹³⁷Cs in twenty four species of Tricholoma mushrooms sourced from the Northern Hemisphere over the last five decades, but also includes some recent data from Italy and Poland. Tricholoma are an ectomycorrhizal species and the interval for contamination to permeate to lower soils layers which host their mycelial networks, results in a delayed manifestation of radioactivity. Available data from Poland, over similar periods, may suggest species selective differences in accumulation, with some fruiting bodies, e.g. T. portentosum, showing lower activity levels relative to others, e.g. T. equestre. Species like T. album, T. sulphurescens and T. terreum also show higher accumulation of radiocaesium, but reported observations are few. The uneven spatial distribution of the data combined with a limited number of observations make it difficult to decipher any temporal contamination patterns from the observations in Polish regions. When data from other European sites is included, a similar variability of ¹³⁷Cs activity is apparent but the more recent Ukrainian data appears to show relatively lower activities. ⁴⁰K activity in mushrooms which is associated with essential potassium, remains relatively constant. Further monitoring of ¹³⁷Cs activity in wild mushrooms would help to consolidate these observations.

Nutritional and Other Trace Elements and Their Associations in Raw King Bolete Mushrooms, Boletus edulis

The occurrence and associations of Ag, As, Ba, Bi, Cd, Co, Cu, Cs, Hg, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sb, Sr, Tl, U, V, W, and Zn, including data that have not been previously reported on Be, Hf, In, Li, Mo, Nb, Sn, Ta, Th, Ti and Zr, and the sum of (14) rare earth elements (ƩREE), were studied in a spatially diverse collection of the B. edulis caps, stipes, and whole fruiting bodies using a validated procedure with measurement by quadrupole ICP-MS. Toxic Cd and Pb were in B. edulis at concentrations below limits set by the European Union in regulations for raw cultivated mushrooms, while Ag, As, Hg, Sb, Tl, and U, which are not regulated, were at relatively low or typical levels as is usually found in mushrooms from an unpolluted area. The elements Be, Bi, Ga, Ge, Hf, In, Nb, Ta, Th, and W, and also ƩREEs, were found at relatively low concentrations in B. edulis, i.e., with levels from below 0.1 to below 0.01 mg kg-1 dw, and for Ʃ14 REEs, the median was 0.31 mg kg-1 dw. The composite samples of caps showed Ag, Cd, Cu, Cs, Ga, Ge, Hg, Mo, Ni, Rb, Sb, Ti, and Zn at higher concentrations than stipes, while Ba, Co, Hf, Sr, Tl, and Zr were found at higher concentrations in stipes than caps (p < 0.05). Mushrooms were characterized by a low coefficient of variation (CV) of below 20%, between sites for concentrations of As, Cu, Ge, Hg, Ni, V, and Zn, while substantial differences (CV > 100%) were found for Ba, Bi, Co, Hf, Zr, and ƩREEs, and an intermediate variation was found for Sr, W, and U. Principal component analysis performed on mushrooms allowed differentiation with respect to 13 collection sites and separation of a consignment that was specifically contaminated, possibly due to a legacy pollution, with significantly higher levels of Ba, Co, Ga, Li, Nb, Ni, Sr, Th, Ti, Y, Zr, and ƩREEs, and another due to possible recent pollution (Pb-gasoline and also Ni); two due to geological contamination because of the Bi, In, Sc, Sb, Sn, Ta, V and W; and one more, the Sudety Mts. site, which was considered as "geogenic/anthropogenic" due to Ag, As, Be, Cd, Cs, Ni, Pb, Rb, Tl, and U.

Natural radioactivity and total K content in wild-growing or cultivated edible mushrooms and soils from Galicia (NW, Spain)

The radioactive isotope, ⁴⁰K, of naturally occurring potassium (0.012%) is present in the Earth's crust in a low percentage of all potassium, leading to its presence in almost all foodstuffs. The impact of ⁴⁰K activity concentrations was assessed in wild and cultivated edible mushrooms and in growing substrates. Samples were analysed by gamma spectroscopy. In the wild mushroom species, the average activity concentration of ⁴⁰K was 1291 Bq kg^-1 dry weight (dw), approximately 140 Bq kg^-1 fresh weight (fw), with a range of average values per species from 748 in Lactarius deliciosus to 1848 Bq kg^-1 dw in Tricholoma portentosum. The cultivated species presented an average value of 1086 Bq kg^-1 dw; and the soils, compost of cultivation and wood of substrate are 876, 510 and 59.4 Bq kg^-1 dw, respectively. The total K content reached a maximum of 59,935 mg kg^-1 dw in T. portentosum. The transfer factors (TF > 1) suggested that mushrooms preferentially bioconcentrated ⁴⁰K. Cantharellus cibarius, Craterellus tubaeformis, Hydnum repandum and T. portentosum by most TF could be considered as bioindicators of ⁴⁰K. Taking into account that the annual radiation dose of ⁴⁰K due to the average consumption of mushrooms analysed (0.15 μSv/year) is very low, it can be concluded that the consumption of these mushrooms does not represent a toxicological risk for human health. Finally, according to the total K content, from the nutritional point of view, these mushrooms could be considered as a potential source of potassium for the human diet.

210Po and 210Pb in King Bolete (Boletus edulis) and Related Mushroom Species: Estimated Effective Radiation Dose and Geospatial Distribution in Central and Eastern Europe

²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb occur naturally and are the most radiotoxic isotopes of the uranium (U) decay chain. Samples of Boletus edulis and related mushroom species, including B. pinophilus, B. reticulatus, B. luridus and B. impolitus, collected from Poland and Belarus were investigated for the activity concentrations of these isotopes and also for their potential health risk through adult human consumption. The results showed that spatially, the occurrence of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Po was heterogeneous, with activities varying from 0.91 to 4.47 Bq∙kg⁻¹ dry biomass and from 0.82 to 5.82 Bq∙kg⁻¹ db, respectively. Caps and stipes of the fruiting bodies showed similar levels of contamination. Consumption of boletes foraged in Poland could result in exposure to a combined radiation dose of 10 µSv∙kg⁻¹ db from both isotopes. This dose is not significant compared to the total annual effective radiation dose of ²¹⁰Po and ²¹⁰Pb (54–471 µSv∙kg⁻¹) from all sources, suggesting that these mushrooms are comparatively safe for human consumption.

Lithiation of Agaricus bisporus mushrooms using compost fortified with LiOH: Effect of fortification levels on Li uptake and co-accumulation of other trace elements

This study investigated the lithiation of white Agaricus bisporus (common button) mushrooms using compost fortified with LiOH solutions at concentrations from 1 to 500 mg kg^-1 compost dw. Apart from the highest level of fortification, the median Li concentrations in the cultivated mushrooms were elevated from 0.74 to 21 mg kg^-1 dw (corresponding to compost fortification from 1.0 to 100 mg LiOH, kg^-1 dw), relative to control mushrooms at 0.031 mg kg^-1 dw. The bio-concentration potential for Li uptake in fruiting bodies was found to decrease at higher levels of fortification e.g. 50 - 100 mg kg^-1 dw, and at the highest level - 500 mg kg^-1, the mycelium failed to produce mushrooms. The fortification of the compost with LiOH appears to have had little, if any, effect on the co-accumulation of other elements such as Ag, Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Rb, Sr, Tl, U, V and Zn in the fruiting bodies, which generally occurred at the lower range of the results reported in the literature for cultivated A. bisporus. Thus compost fortification with LiOH provides an effective means of lithiating A. bisporus for potential pro-therapeutic use.