Pacing Strategies of 1500 m Freestyle Swimmers in the World Championships According to Their Final Position

Race analysis in swimming: understanding the evolution of publications, citations and networks through a bibliometric review

The aim of this study was to conduct a scoping and bibliometric review of swimming articles related to race analysis. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were used to identify relevant studies. Articles on race analysis in swimming published between 1984 and December 31, 2023 were retrieved from the Web of Science database. 366 records were screened and a total of 74 articles were retained for analysis. Until 2012, there were some time intervals with no or few publications. From 2012, there was a clear upward trend in publications and citations. This theme was led by the United States of America, Australia, and Spain. Australia and Spain maintain their status as the countries with the most publications. The analysis of author collaborations revealed two clusters with Spanish authors, and the remaining clusters are composed of Portuguese, Swiss, and Australian authors. With this bibliometric review, it has been possible to understand the evolution of the articles published on race analysis in swimming, the countries and the authors that have contributed most to this topic over the years. The prediction model shows that the number of articles and citations on this topic will continue to increase over the next 10 years (until 2034).

The effect of forced even pacing and an opponent on end-spurt behaviour in freestyle pool swimming

To investigate the effect of forced even pacing through virtual pacing assistance and an opponent in a competitive setting on end-spurt behaviour in freestyle swimmers, including related physiological underpinnings. Twenty-seven competitive swimmers and triathletes were recruited. There were four 1500 m freestyle trials: (i) familiarisation time trial, (ii) self-paced time trial (STT), (iii) head-to-head competition time trial (CTT) and (iv) forced even pacing through virtual pacing assistance time trial (FET). Eventually, 12 swimmers met the criteria for the CTT and FET to be included in the analysis. Changes in end-spurt behaviour, finishing time and physiological parameters (lactate, cortisol, noradrenaline and heart rate) were analysed using a linear mixed model with fixed effects for trials and a random effect for swimmer identity. A separate linear model was computed for competition outcome. The end-spurt for each race was determined by means of an end-spurt indicator (ESI; ESI > 0 greater end-spurt). Swimmers demonstrated a significantly greater ESI in FET (+2.6; p < 0.001) and CTT (+1.4; p = 0.022) compared to STT. Blood lactate concentration in FET (+1.0 mmol L-1; p < 0.001) and CTT (+1.6 mmol L-1; p < 0.001) was significantly higher than in STT. Winners had a significantly greater ESI than losers in CTT (+1.6 and p = 0.005). Swimmers utilised a greater end-spurt through metabolically optimal forced even pacing by virtual pacing assistance and in a head-to-head competition due a larger mobilisation of anaerobic reserves as indicated by greater blood lactate concentrations. Winners had a significantly greater end-spurt than losers despite similar metabolic disturbances.

Comparing the Performance Gap Between Males and Females in the Older Age Groups in IRONMAN® 70.3: An Internet-Based Cross-Sectional Study of More Than 800,000 Race Records

BACKGROUND

The sex difference in the three split disciplines (swimming, cycling, and running) and overall race times in triathlon races has mainly been investigated for the Olympic distance and IRONMAN® triathlon formats, but not for the half IRONMAN® distance, i.e., the IRONMAN® 70.3. The aim of the present study was to investigate the sex differences in IRONMAN® 70.3 by age group in 5-year intervals for the split disciplines of this race. Data from 823,459 records (625,393 males and 198,066 females) of all age group finishers (in 5-year intervals) competing in all official IRONMAN® 70.3 races held worldwide between 2004 and 2020 were analyzed, and sex differences by age group and split disciplines were evaluated.

RESULTS

Males were faster than females in all split disciplines and all age groups. The sex difference was lower in swimming than in cycling and running and less pronounced for triathletes between 20 and 50 years of age. After the age of 60 years, females were able to reduce the sex difference to males in swimming and cycling, but not in running, where the reduction in the sex difference started after the age of 70 years. The lowest sex difference was in the age group 75 + years for swimming and cycling and in the age group 30-34 years for running. Across age groups, the sex difference was U-shaped in swimming and running, with an increase after 18-24 years in swimming and after 40-44 years in running. In contrast, the sex difference decreased continuously with the increasing age for cycling.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, the study found that the sex difference in performance decreases with age in the IRONMAN® 70.3 race distance. However, females did not outperform males at older ages. Notably, sex differences were observed across different disciplines, with swimming displaying lower differences compared to cycling and running. These findings underscore the complex interplay between age, sex, and performance in endurance sports, emphasizing the need for additional research to understand the factors influencing these differences.

Pacing Strategy Models in 1500 m Male Freestyle Long-Course Swimming on the Basis of the All-Time Ranking

In long-distance swimming competitions, a pacing strategy is of considerable importance for the final result and for sporting success. The paper presents the pacing strategy models of the all-time best competitors in 1500 m male freestyle long-course swimming. The top 60 scores were retrieved from official websites. The results were divided into six groups of ten swim times each, with splits of 15 × 100, 5 × 300, 3 × 500, and 2 × 750 m, and then analysis of variance was used. The main effects of the competitor group order revealed with the analysis of variance were statistically significant (p < 0.001). The group effect size turned out very high (η_p² = 0.95). Consecutive groups of competitors achieved significantly slower results. The magnitude of the interaction effects of the competitor group order and distance splits was moderate (η_p² of 0.05-0.09) and statistically not significant. The main effects of the 3 × 500, 5 × 300, and 15 × 100 m splits were high and very high (η_p² of 0.33-0.75) and statistically significant (p < 0.001). The difference between the 2 × 750 m split was statistically not significant. The achieved values of the main effects led to the following trend. In the distance split, the first and last sections did not significantly differ from each other, nor did the middle sections. However, when the middle sections and the first and last sections were compared against each other, a significant discrepancy was observed. The pacing strategies of the best athletes in the history of the competition follow a very similar parabolic trend.

World and European Rowing Medallists Pace With Smaller Variation Than Their Competitors

Purpose: To establish the relation between pacing pattern and performance, within sex, and number of crew members, at the very highest performance level in World class rowing.

Methods: Pacing profiles based on official 500 m split times in 106 A-finals with six contesting boat crews (n = 636 crews), in recent World (2017–2019) and European (2017–2021) championships, were analyzed. The coefficient of variation (CV) and sum of relative differences (SRD) of the split times, and normalized velocities in the four segments of the race, were compared between performance levels, that is, placement (1st–6th), and subgroups based on sex (female or male) and number of crew members (one, two, or four). Statistical tests and resulting p-values and effect sizes (Cohen's d) were used to assess differences between groups.

Results: The pacing profiles of the medallists had smaller variation than those of the non-podium finishers (CV = 1.72% vs. CV = 2.00%; p = 4 × 10−7, d = 0.41). Compared to the non-podium finishers, the medallists had lower normalized velocities in the first and second segments of the race, slightly higher in the third segment and higher in the fourth segment. Female crews paced somewhat more evenly than male crews. No significant differences were found in the evenness of pacing profiles between singles, doubles/pairs and quads/fours. Analyses of SRD were overall consistent with analyses of CV.

Conclusion: Medal winners in major rowing championships use a more even pacing strategy than their final competitors, which could imply that such a strategy is advantageous in rowing.