Bioaccessibility of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Grilled Meat: The Effects of Meat Doneness and Fat Content

Behavior of diclofenac from contaminated fish after cooking and in vitro digestion

BACKGROUND

Seafood consumers are widely exposed to diclofenac due to the high contamination levels often present in aquatic organisms. It is a potential risk to public health due its endocrine disruptor properties. Limited information is available about diclofenac behavior after food digestion to enable a more realistic scenario of consumer exposure. This study aimed to evaluate cooking effects on diclofenac levels, and determine diclofenac bioaccessibility by an in vitro digestion assay, using commercial fish species (seabass and white mullet) as models. The production of the main metabolite 4'-hydroxydiclofenac was also investigated. Fish hamburgers were spiked at two levels (150 and 1000 ng g-1) and submitted to three culinary treatments (roasting, steaming and grilling).

RESULTS

The loss of water seems to increase the diclofenac levels after cooking, except in seabass with higher levels. The high bioaccessibility of diclofenac (59.1-98.3%) observed in both fish species indicates that consumers' intestines are more susceptible to absorption, which can be worrisome depending on the level of contamination. Contamination levels did not affect the diclofenac bioaccessibility in both species. Seabass, the fattest species, exhibited a higher bioaccessibility of diclofenac compared to white mullet. Overall, cooking decreased diclofenac bioaccessibility by up to 40% in seabass and 25% in white mullet. The main metabolite 4'-hydroxydiclofenac was not detected after cooking or digestion.

CONCLUSION

Thus, consumption of cooked fish, preferentially grilled seabass and steamed or baked white mullet are more advisable. This study highlights the importance to consider bioaccessibility and cooking in hazard characterization studies. © 2024 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Formation and Reduction of Toxic Compounds Derived from the Maillard Reaction During the Thermal Processing of Different Food Matrices

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs), heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), acrylamide (AA), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are toxic substances that are produced in certain foods during thermal processing by using common high-temperature unit operations such as frying, baking, roasting, grill cooking, extrusion, among others. Understanding the formation pathways of these potential risk factors, which can cause cancer or contribute to the development of many chronic diseases in humans, is crucial for reducing their occurrence in thermally processed foods. During thermal processing, food rich in carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids undergoes a crucial Maillard reaction, leading to the production of highly active carbonyl compounds. These compounds then react with other substances to form harmful substances, which ultimately affect negatively the health of the human body. Although these toxic compounds differ in various forms of formation, they all partake in the common Maillard pathway. This review primarily summarizes the occurrence, formation pathways, and reduction measures of common toxic compounds during the thermal processing of food, based on independent studies for each specific contaminant in its corresponding food matrix. Finally, it provides several approaches for the simultaneous reduction of multiple toxic compounds.

Prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phthalate acid esters and gestational diabetes mellitus: A prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phthalate acid esters (PAHs & PAEs), known as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), widely exist in daily life and industrial production. Previous studies have suggested that PAHs & PAEs may modify the intrauterine homeostasis and have adverse effects on fetal development. However, epidemiological evidence on the associations between PAHs & PAEs and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is still limited.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of prenatal PAHs &PAEs exposure on the risk of GDM and hyperglycemia in pregnant women.

METHODS

The study population was a total of 725 pregnant women from a prospective birth cohort study conducted from December 2019 to December 2021. Blood glucose levels were collected by the hospital information system. Urinary PAHs & PAEs concentrations were determined by gas chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The Poisson regression in a generalized linear model (GLM), multiple linear regression, quantile-based g-computation method (qgcomp), and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) were applied to explore and verify the individual and overall effects of PAHs & PAEs on glucose homeostasis. Potential confounders were adjusted in all statistical models.

RESULTS

A total of 179 (24.69%) women were diagnosed with GDM. The Poisson regression suggested that a ln-unit increment of 4-OHPHE (4-hydroxyphenanthrene) (adjusted Risk Ratio (aRR) = 1.13; 1.02-1.26) was associated with the increased GDM risk. Mixed-exposure models showed similar results. We additionally found that MBZP (mono-benzyl phthalate) (aRR = 1.19; 1.02-1.39) was positively related to GDM risk in qgcomp model. Although neither model demonstrated that 2-OHNAP (2-hydroxynaphthalene) and 9-OHFLU (9-hydroxyfluorene) increased the risk of GDM, 2-OHNAP and 9-OHFLU exposure significantly increased blood glucose levels. BKMR model further confirmed that overall effects of PAHs & PAEs were significantly associated with the gestational hyperglycemia and GDM risk.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study presents that environmental exposure to PAHs & PAEs was positively associated with gestational glucose levels and the risks of developing GDM. In particular, 2-OHNAP, 9-OHFLU, 4-OHPHE and MBZP may serve as important surveillance markers to prevent the development of GDM.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons content of food, water and vegetables and associated cancer risk assessment in Southern Nigeria

The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content of water (four surface water, six underground water (borehole water), seven sachet water), barbecued food and their fresh equivalents (barbecued beef, fish, plantain, pork, yam, chicken, chevon, potato, corn), oil (three palm oil, nine vegetable oil), and fresh vegetable samples (water leaf, bitter leaf, cabbage, carrot, cucumber, pumpkin, garlic, ginger, green leaf, Gnetum Africana, onion, pepper) were determined by GC-MS analysis. The current study also determined the estimated lifetime cancer risk from ingesting polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-contaminated food. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon content of water, oil, vegetable, and food samples were within the United States Environmental Protection Agency/World Health Organization safe limits. The naphthalene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, and benzo(k)fluoranthene levels in surface water were significantly higher than in borehole samples (P = 0.000, 0.047, 0.047). Vegetable oils had higher anthracene and chrysene compared to palm oil (P = 0.023 and 0.032). Significant variations were observed in levels of naphthalene, acenaphthylene, phenanthrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, benzo(a)pyrene, and dibenzo(a,h)anthracene among the barbecued and fresh food samples (P <0.05). Barbecued pork, potato, and corn had significantly higher naphthalene compared to their fresh equivalents (P = 0.002, 0.017, and <0.001). Consumption of barbecued food and surface water may be associated with higher exposure risk to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which may predispose to increased cancer health risk. The current work explores in depth the concentration of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different dietary categories that pose direct risk to humans via direct consumption. These findings add knowledge to support future considerations for human health.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons' Impact on Crops and Occurrence, Sources, and Detection Methods in Food: A Review

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) represent a category of persistent organic pollutants that pose a global concern in the realm of food safety due to their recognized carcinogenic properties in humans. Food can be contaminated with PAHs that are present in water, air, or soil, or during food processing and cooking. The wide and varied sources of PAHs contribute to their persistent contamination of food, leading to their accumulation within these products. As a result, monitoring of the levels of PAHs in food is necessary to guarantee the safety of food products as well as the public health. This review paper attempts to give its readers an overview of the impact of PAHs on crops, their occurrence and sources, and the methodologies employed for the sample preparation and detection of PAHs in food. In addition, possible directions for future research are proposed. The objective is to provide references for the monitoring, prevention, and in-depth exploration of PAHs in food.

The carcinogenic PAHs in breads, amount, analytical method and mitigation strategy, a systematic review study

Bread is one of the most consumed foods all over the world. Several contaminants are identified in bread. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is one of these contaminants. This systematic study evaluates the amount of four carcinogenic PAHs (PAH4) in various types of breads. To conduct this study, a comprehensive search was carried out using keywords of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs, PAH4, and bread, with no time limitations. 17 articles were selected and fully evaluated. The observed range of PAH4 concentrations in bread varied from non-detected (ND) to 20.66 µg/kg. In the sample preparation process for analysis, an ultrasonic bath was predominantly utilized. Most chromatographic methods are able to measure PAHs in food, but the GC-MS method has been used more. To mitigate PAH levels in bread, it is suggested to incorporate antioxidants during the bread-making process. Furthermore, the type of bread, the type of fuel used to bake the bread, the temperature and the cooking time were some of the factors affecting the amount of PAH. Restricting these factors could significantly reduce PAH content. Regarding the risk assessment conducted in the manuscript, it was determined that industrial breads are usually considered safe. However, some traditional breads may pose risks in terms of their potential PAH content.

Influence of Fish Species and Wood Type on Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Contamination in Smoked Fish Meat

Despite the numerous sensory, organoleptic and nutritional qualities, fish meat may also contain some toxic compounds with negative effects on human health. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of chemicals resulting from incomplete combustion, found at high levels in thermally processed foods, especially in smoked fish. This research studied the influence of wood type (beech, plum and oak) and fish species (rainbow trout, carp and Siberian sturgeon) on PAH contamination in hot smoked fish. Benzo(a)Piren, Σ4PAHs and Σ15PAHs were considered as main indicators of PAH contamination. All-PAHs was quantified in all samples, indicating a specific dynamic of values due to the influence of variables. Generally, BaP (benzo(a)pyrene) content in the samples ranged from 0.11 µg/kg to 8.63 µg/kg, Σ4PAHs from 0.70 µg/kg to 45.24 µg/kg and Σ15PAHs from 17.54 µg/kg to 450.47 µg/kg. Thus, plum wood promoted the highest levels of PAHs, followed by oak and beech. Carp and Siberian sturgeon presented the highest concentrations of PAHs. Some of these parameters had levels that exceeded the limits allowed by legislation via Commission Regulation (EU) No 835/2011. Results revealed BaP levels > 2 µg/kg when plum wood was used in rainbow trout (4.04 µg/kg), carp (4.47 µg/kg) and Siberian sturgeon (8.63 µg/kg). Moreover, the same trend was found for Σ4PAHs, which exceeded 12 µg/kg in rainbow trout (17.57 µg/kg), carp (45.24 µg/kg) and Siberian sturgeon (44.97 µg/kg).

Mono and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in waterpipe wastewater: Level and ecotoxicological risk assessment

Increasing of tobacco consumption around the world has led to the production of a large volume of waterpipe wastewater that enter the environment (e.g., coastal areas)and threaten aquatic creatures. However, until now, no research has been carried out on the amounts of monocyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in hookah wastewater. In the current study, the levels of PAHs and BTEX compounds in waterpipe wastewater resulting from the use of different tobacco brands were determined and their eco-toxicological effects were also evaluated. The mean levels of ƩPAHs in waterpipe wastewater of Al Tawareg, Al-Fakher, Nakhla, Tangiers and traditional tobacco brands samples were 3.48 ± 1.65, 3.33 ± 1.52, 3.08 ± 1.25, 2.41 ± 0.87 and 0.70 ± 0.13 μg/L, respectively. The mean levels of ƩBTEX in waterpipe wastewater of Al Tawareg, Al-Fakher, Nakhla, Tangiers and traditional tobacco brands samples were also 2.53 ± 0.61, 2.65 ± 0.78, 2.51 ± 0.72, 2.35 ± 0.56, and 0.78 ± 0.12 μg/L, respectively. The maximum level of PAHs and BTEX compounds in all brands/flavors samples were for naphthalene (Naph) and toluene, respectively. The concentrations of some PAHs (fluoranthene (Flrt), anthracene (Ant), benzo(b)fluoranthene (BbF), benzo(b)fluoranthene (BkF), benzo (g,h,i)perylene (BghiP) and dibenzo (a, h) anthracene (DahA)) and BTEX compounds (benzene) in the waterpipe wastewater samples were more than recommended guidelines and standards by the international reputable organizations such as World Health Organization (WHO) for water quality. Waterpipe wastewater can be introduced as an important origin for the release of these dangerous contaminants into the environmental matrixes. Therefore, more stringent regulations should be considered for the safe disposal of such hazardous wastes including waterpipe wastewater.

Co-exposure to phthalates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the risk of gestational hypertension in Chinese women

Phthalates (PAEs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are frequently detected in females of reproductive age. Many studies have found that environmental PAE and PAH levels are independent risk factors for gestational hypertension. However, exposure to both components is a more realistic scenario. To better assess the health effects of PAEs and PAHs in pregnant women, we explored the associations of exposure to both individual and combined PAEs and PAHs with gestational hypertension. This nested case-control study was a component of a prospective cohort study conducted in Beijing, China. We included 206 women with gestational hypertension and 214 pregnant controls. We used gas chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) to detect 8 PAEs and 13 PAHs in > 80 % of all collected hair samples. Multiple linear regression models were employed to test the individual associations between each component and gestational hypertension. A quantile-based g-computation (qgcomp) model and a weighted quantile sum (WQS) regression model were used to estimate whether exposure to both PAEs and PAHs increased the risk of gestational hypertension. The individual exposure analyses revealed that diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP) (both PAEs), benzo(k)fluoranthene (BKF), anthracene, (ANT), and benzo(a)pyrene (BAP) (all PAHs) were positively associated with increased risk of gestational hypertension. In mixed-effect analyses, the qgcomp model indicated that co-exposure to PAEs and PAHs increased the risk of gestational hypertension (odds ratio = 2.01; 95 % confidence interval: 1.02, 3.94); this finding was verified by the WQS regression model. Our findings support earlier evidence that both PAEs and PAHs increase the risk of gestational hypertension, both individually and in combination. This suggests that reductions in exposure to endocrine system-disrupting chemicals such as PAEs and PAHs might reduce the risk of gestational hypertension.

Red Meat Heating Processes, Toxic Compounds Production and Nutritional Parameters Changes: What about Risk-Benefit?

The heating process is a crucial step that can lead to the formation of several harmful chemical compounds in red meat such as heterocyclic aromatic amines, N-Nitrosamines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and acrylamide. Meat has high nutritional value, providing essential amino acids, bioactive compounds and several important micronutrients which can also be affected by heating processes. This review aims to provide an updated overview of the effects of different heating processes on both the safety and nutritional parameters of cooked red meat. The most-used heating processes practices were taken into consideration in order to develop a risk-benefit scenario for each type of heating process and red meat.

Estimating personal exposures to household air pollution and plastic garbage burning among adolescent girls in Jalapa, Guatemala

Waste collection services are uncommon in rural areas of low-resource countries, causing waste accumulation and subsequent dumping and burning of garbage. Air pollution from household garbage burning, including plastics, has been observed in Jalapa, Guatemala in addition to household air pollution (HAP) from cooking. Adolescent girls often help with these cooking and household tasks, but little is known about their exposures. We characterized 24-h exposures to HAP and household garbage burning in adolescent girls by measuring fine particulate matter (PM2.5), black carbon (BC), urinary biomarkers of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), bisphenol A (BPA), and phthalates. We recruited 60 girls between 13 and 17 years of age who helped with cooking activities and lived with participants of the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network (HAPIN) trial. We recruited n = 30 girls each from the control (wood-burning stove) and intervention (liquefied petroleum gas stove) arms. We also measured real-time kitchen concentrations of BC in 20 homes (33%). PM2.5 and BC were measured in n = 21 control and n = 20 intervention participants. Median concentrations of personal PM2.5 and BC and kitchen BC were lower (p < 0.05) in the intervention arm by 87%, 80%, and 85%, respectively. PAH metabolite concentrations were lower (p < 0.001) for all nine metabolites in intervention (n = 26) compared to control participants (n = 29). Urinary BPA concentrations were 66% higher in participants who reported using cosmetics (p = 0.02), and phthalate concentrations were 63% higher in participants who had reported using hair products during the sample period (p = 0.05). Our results suggest that gas stoves can reduce HAP exposures among adolescents who are not primary cooks at home. Biomarkers of plastic exposure were not associated with intervention status, but some were elevated compared to age- and sex-matched participants of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).

Multivariate Optimization and Validation of a Modified QuEChERS Method for Determination of PAHs and PCBs in Grilled Meat by GC-MS

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are recognized as carcinogens and mutagenic food contaminants that threaten public health. As for food safety aspects, control of these contaminants in processed and fatty food is necessary. In this study, eleven factors were screened by the Plackett-Burman design, and four variables were chosen to optimize with the central composite design (CCD) for the improvement of extraction and cleanup procedures of these food contaminants. The optimized variables include 5 g of sample, 2 mL mixture of 2/2/1 ethyl acetate/acetone/isooctane, 1.6 g of ammonium formate, 0.9 g of sodium chloride, and 0.25 g of sorbent Z-Sep+. A 5 min cleanup vortex time with the spike calibration curve strategy, analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), led to the validated limits of quantification (LOQs) for 16 PAHs and 36 PCBs of 0.5-2 and 0.5-1 ng/g, respectively, and recoveries of 72-120%, with an average relative standard deviation (%RSD) of 17, for PAHs, and 80-120%, with an %RSD of 3, for PCBs. The method introduces excellent accuracy, precision, and efficiency, and minimizes matrix effects, and ensures a control procedure, adopted with international standards, for food authorities to determine the contaminants of interest in processed meat, and consequently, prevent food-borne disease to improve public health indices.

Effect of curcumin on the formation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled chicken wings

Organic macromolecules form carcinogenic and toxic substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) under high temperature baking. Thus, this study investigated the effects and inhibition pathways of different curcumin concentrations (0.01, 0.05, 0.25, 0.3 mg/g) on seven PAHs in grilled chicken wings. The results demonstrated that curcumin concentrations displayed positive effects in inhibiting the formation of PAHs (16%-72%), increasing the total phenolic content (397.5-1934.4 mg/g) and free radical scavenging activity, and reducing TBARS values (31.15%-47.76%) and fatty acid content. Additionally, PCA and Pearson correlation analyses indicated that lipid oxidation (r = 0.42) and unsaturated fatty acids (r = 0.55) could promote the production of PAHs, while DPPH, ABTS and TPC could counteract their facilitation of PAHs. In conclusion, the addition of appropriate amounts of curcumin before grilling is a feasible strategy to reduce fat oxidation levels and the number of free radicals for the purpose of limiting PAHs content.

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Roasted Pork Meat and the Effect of Dried Fruits on PAH Content

Diet is one of the main factors affecting human health. The frequent consumption of heat-treated meat has been classified as both directly carcinogenic to humans and as a risk factor, especially in the case of cancers of the gastrointestinal tract. Thermally processed meat may contain harmful muta- and carcinogenic compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). However, there are natural ways to reduce the risk of diet-related cancers by reducing the formation of PAHs in meat. The purpose of this study was to determine changes in PAH levels in pork loin dishes prepared by stuffing the meat with dried fruits (prunes, apricots and cranberries) and baking it in a roasting bag. High-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) was used to conduct a quantitative analysis of seven PAHs. Recovery results ranged from 61 to 96%. The limit of detection (LOD) was 0.003 to 0.006 ng/g, and the limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.01 to 0.02 ng/g. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) was used to confirm the presence of PAHs in food. The total PAH content of the roasted pork loin was 7.4 ng/g. This concentration decreased by 35%, 48% and 58% when the meat was roasted with apricots, prunes and cranberries, respectively. The cranberries also inhibited the formation of benzo(a)pyrene to the greatest extent. Thermally treating meat stuffed with dry fruits may be a simple and effective way to prepare foods with reduced levels of mutagens and carcinogens belonging to PAHs, and thus reduce the risk of cancer.

Phthalate acid esters and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentrations with their determining factors among Chinese pregnant women: A focus on dietary patterns

BACKGROUND

Pregnant women are susceptible to adverse health effects associated with phthalate acid esters (PAEs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and diet is a significant exposure source. Little is known about the contributions of dietary patterns during pregnancy to the exposure variability of these environmental contaminants.

OBJECTIVES

To identify dietary patterns in relation to PAEs and PAHs exposure in the Chinese pregnant population.

METHODS

Dietary data and urinary concentrations of environmental pollutants were obtained from 1190 pregnant women in the Tongji Birth Cohort (TJBC). PAEs and PAHs were measured in spot urine samples. Food intake was assessed using a food-frequency questionnaire. Dietary patterns were constructed by principal component analysis (PCA). Through PCA, we also extracted three chemical mixture scores that represent different co-exposure patterns of PAEs and PAHs. Multiple linear regression models were adopted to identify predictors of PAEs and PAHs exposure.

RESULTS

Four dietary patterns were identified by PCA that explained 44.9 % of the total variance of food intake. We found egg-dairy products pattern, whole grain-tuber crop pattern, and meat-aquatic products pattern were positively associated with specific pollutants exposure. In contrast, fruit-nut-vegetable pattern was negatively correlated with PAEs and PAHs exposure. Every SD increase in this pattern score was associated with 14.36 % reduced mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate (MEOHP) (95 % CI: -24.50 ~ -2.96, p-trend = 0.01), 10.86 % reduced 2-hydroxynaphthalene (2-OHNap) (95 % CI: -20.07 ~ -0.60, p-trend = 0.04), 19.35 % reduced 9-hydroxyphenanthrene (9-OHPhe) (95 % CI: -34.49 ~ -0.70, p-trend = 0.01), and 8.33 % reduced scores of PAHs group (95 % CI: -15.97 ~ -0.10, p-trend = 0.02). In addition, disposable tableware usage and passive smoking were suggested as potentially modifiable sources of PAEs and PAHs exposure, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Adhering to egg-dairy products pattern, whole grain-tuber crop pattern, and meat-aquatic products pattern may be related to increased PAEs and PAHs exposure, while following fruit-nut-vegetable pattern seems to correlate with a lower burden of such exposure.

Transcriptome analysis of breast muscle and liver in full-sibling hybrid broilers at different ages

In China, the production mode of hybrid broilers with meat-type chicken as male parent and egg-type chicken as female parent is common, but few studies pay attention to the economic characteristics of hybrid broilers. In this experiment, we constructed a full-sib F1 population (n = 57) from male Recursive White broiler and female Lohmann Pink layer. Total 6, 6 and 7 hybrid broilers at days 1, 28 and 56 were selected randomly to collect breast muscle and liver tissues, respectively. After performing strand-specific RNA-Seq on these samples, we obtained 252.12 Gb sequencing data. Principal component analysis presented that the effects of different factors on gene expression were as below: tissue difference > age difference > sex difference. The ten genes with the highest expression in breast muscle were GAPDH, ACTA1, ATP2B3, COII, ATP6, COX3, COX1, MYL1, TNNI2 and ENSGALG00000042024. Through the analysis of differentially expressed transcripts (DETs) between different ages, we found that the number of DETs decreased progressively with the prolongation of ages in breast muscle. The same results were also observed in liver. GO enrichment analysis of DETs demonstrated that total 11 BP terms closely related to growth and development of breast muscle were annotated, such as cardiac muscle contract, muscle contract, cell division and so on. KEGG annotation presented that total 5 pathways related to growth and development were determined in breast muscle, including Cell cycle, Insulin signaling pathway, FoxO signaling pathway, Focal adhesion and Adrenergic signaling in cardiomyocytes. Our results may provide theoretical foundation for hybrid broiler production.

Inhalation risk to PAHs and BTEX during barbecuing: The role of fuel/food type and route of exposure

The manuscript presents an innovative and holistic approach to quantifying PAHs and BTEX emissions from the grilling process and indicates a novel driven-toxicity-based solution to recognize health effects related to BBQ emissions. The exposure scenario includes the type of grilling device, food type, and individual attitudes, but also a keen understanding of the broad health implications related to the gaseous/particulate PAHs emission, or age-related effects. The calculated incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) associated with the exposure to PAH congeners and BTEX indicates an unacceptable level in the case of charcoal and briquette grilling with the highest values for professional cooks. The sum of 15 PAH concentrations in grilled foods was highest for meat grilling over charcoal briquettes - 382,020.39 ng/m³ and lowest for meat grilling on a gas grill - 1442.16 ng/m³. The emissions of BTEX from lump charcoal grilling were 130 times higher compared to the gaseous grill. In all considered scenarios lump-charcoal and charcoal briquettes grilling derive the ILCR above the 10^-4, indicating negative effects of traditional grills on human health. The paper completes knowledge of wide-ranging health implications associated with BBQs, a topic that is almost completely unaddressed among the scientific community and policymakers.