Association between Chronic Environmental Lead (Pb) Exposure and Cytokines in Males and Females of Reproductive Age from Kabwe, Zambia

Influence of lead-induced toxicity on the inflammatory cytokines

Lead (Pb2+) is a hazardous heavy metal that is pervasive in the human environment as a result of anthropogenic activity, and poses serious health risks, particularly in children. Due to its innumerable unique physical and chemical properties, it has various applications; therefore, it has become a common environmental pollutant. Lead may cause oxidative stress, and accumulating evidence indicates that oxidative stress influences the pathophysiology of lead poisoning, also called plumbism. The immune system is continually exposed to various environmental pathogens and xenobiotics, including heavy metals such as lead, and appears to be one of the most vulnerable targets. After being exposed to lead, cells are subjected to oxidative stress as a result of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. When the generation and consumption of ROS are out of equilibrium, various cell structures, particularly phospholipids are disrupted leading to lipid peroxidation. Various inflammatory signalling pathways are activated as a consequence, along with reduced disease resistance, inflammation, autoimmunity, sensitization and disruption of the cell-mediated and humoral immune systems. Lead negatively affects the metabolism of cytokines, including the interleukins IL-2, IL-1b, IL-6, IL-4, IL-8, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interferon-gamma (IFN), as well as the expression and functioning of inflammatory enzymes such as cyclooxygenases. However, the cause of toxicity depends on the kind of lead, dosage, route of entry, exposure period, age, host and genetic predisposition.

The Role of Trace Elements in Cardiovascular Diseases

Essential trace elements play an important role in human physiology and are associated with various functions regulating cellular metabolism. Non-essential trace elements, on the other hand, often have well-documented toxicities that are dangerous for the initiation and development of diseases due to their widespread occurrence in the environment and their accumulation in living organisms. Non-essential trace elements are therefore regarded as serious environmental hazards that are harmful to health even in low concentrations. Many representatives of these elements are present as pollutants in our environment, and many people may be exposed to significant amounts of these substances over the course of their lives. Among the most common non-essential trace elements are heavy metals, which are also associated with acute poisoning in humans. When these elements accumulate in the body over years of chronic exposure, they often cause severe health damage in a variety of tissues and organs. In this review article, the role of selected essential and non-essential trace elements and their role in the development of exemplary pathophysiological processes in the cardiovascular system will be examined in more detail.