Situational analysis of household energy and biomass use and associated health burden of indoor air pollution and mitigation efforts in Pakistan

A comprehensive review on endocrine toxicity of gaseous components and particulate matter in smog

Smog is a form of extreme air pollution which comprises of gases such as ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen and carbon oxides, and solid particles including particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10). Different types of smog include acidic, photochemical, and Polish. Smog and its constituents are hazardaous to human, animals, and plants. Smog leads to plethora of morbidities such as cancer, endocrine disruption, and respiratory and cardiovascular disorders. Smog components alter the activity of various hormones including thyroid, pituitary, gonads and adrenal hormones by altering regulatory genes, oxidation status and the hypothalamus-pituitary axis. Furthermore, these toxicants are responsible for the development of metabolic disorders, teratogenicity, insulin resistance, infertility, and carcinogenicity of endocrine glands. Avoiding fossil fuel, using renewable sources of energy, and limiting gaseous discharge from industries can be helpful to avoid endocrine disruption and other toxicities of smog. This review focuses on the toxic implications of smog and its constituents on endocrine system, their toxicodynamics and preventive measures to avoid hazardous health effects.

Relationship between Household Dynamics, Biomass Consumption, and Carbon Emissions in Pakistan

Over the years, the household sector has become an important energy consumer and the main source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The rural household sector has significant potential for emission reduction due to its heavy reliance on traditional fuels and technologies. A great number of academic studies have been undertaken to analyze patterns of household energy and their determinants around the globe, particularly in developing countries. However, little is known about the association between household dynamics and patterns of energy (biomass vs. non-renewable) use. This study aims to analyze the relationship between different household dynamics, such as household size, income, climate, availability of resources, markets, awareness, consumption of energy, and carbon emissions. The study uses the STIRPAT model to investigate the impact of income, household size, housing dimensions, clean energy, and market accessibility on energy consumption. The findings of the study reveal that biomass energy accounts for the majority of household energy consumption and dung has the highest share in total household energy consumption (39.11%) The consumption of biomass increased with the size of the household and decreased with the level of income. A 1 kgoe increase in biomass consumption resulted in a 15.355 kg increase in CO2 emissions; on the other hand, a 1 kgoe increase in non-renewable-energy consumption resulted in just a 0.8675 kg increase in CO2 emissions. The coefficients of housing unit size, distance from the LPG market, and livestock were the primary determinants for choosing any fuel. Having knowledge of modern cookstoves, clean energy, and the environmental impact of fuels reduced the consumption of both energy sources. Furthermore, it was found that households with a greater reliance on biomass emitted higher quantities of carbon compared to those with a low reliance on biomass. Based on the results of the study, it can be stated that a reduction in the use of biomass and non-renewable energy is possible with adequate interventions and knowledge.

ATR-FTIR and LC-Q-ToF-MS analysis of indoor dust from different micro-environments located in a tropical metropolitan area

Indoor dust is an important matrix that exposes humans to a broad spectrum of chemicals. The information on the occurrence of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs), their metabolites, and re-emerging contaminants in indoor dust is rather limited. As the indoor environment is exposed to various chemicals from personal care products, furniture, building materials, machineries and cooking/cleaning products, there is a high chance of the presence of hazardous contaminants in indoor dust. In the present study, dust samples were collected from four different micro indoor environments (photocopying centres, residential houses, classrooms, and ATM cabins) located in an urban environment located in India's southwestern part. The collected samples were subjected to ATR - FTIR and LC-Q-ToF-MS analyses. The ATR - FTIR analysis indicated the presence of aldehydes, anhydrides, carboxylic acids, esters, sulphonic acids, and asbestos - a re-emerging contaminant. A total of 19 compounds were identified from the LC-Q-ToF-MS analysis. These compounds belonged to various classes such as plasticisers, plasticiser metabolites, photoinitiators, personal care products, pharmaceutical intermediates, surfactants, and pesticides. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report regarding the presence of CECs in indoor environments in Kerala and also the suspected occurrence of pesticides (metaldehyde and ethofumesate) in classroom dust in India. Another important highlight of this work is the demonstration of ATR-FTIR as a complementary technique for LC-Q-ToF-MS in the analysis of indoor pollution while dealing with totally unknown pollutants. These results further highlight the occurrence of probable chemically modified metabolites in the tropical climatic conditions in a microenvironment.

Health impacts of indoor air pollution from household solid fuel on children and women

The inefficient and incomplete combustion of solid fuel (SF) is associated with high levels of indoor air pollutants leading to 3.55 million deaths annually. The risk is higher in women and children, due to their higher exposure duration and unique physical properties. The current article aims to provide a critical overview regarding the use of solid fuel, its associated pollutants, their toxicity mechanisms and, most importantly the associated health impacts, especially in women and children. Pollutants associated with SF mostly include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, particulate matter, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide and sulfur dioxide, and their concentrations are two- to threefold higher in indoor environments. These pollutants can lead to a variety of health risks by inducing different toxicity mechanisms, such as oxidative stress, DNA methylation, and gene activation. Exposed children have an increased prevalence of low birth weight, acute lower respiratory tract infections, anemia and premature mortality. On the other hand, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and cardiovascular diseases are the major causes of disability and premature death in women. Indoor air pollution resulting from SF combustion is a major public health threat globally. To reduce the risks, it is important to identify future research gaps and implement effective interventions and policies.

Determinants of household cooking fuels and their impact on women's health in rural Pakistan

Use of biomass with traditional cooking technologies causes indoor air pollution and is responsible for 3.5 million deaths globally. Women play the main role in biomass-based energy systems in developing countries. The current study attempted to estimate determinants of household cooking fuels and impacts of fuels on women's health in rural Pakistan. The results of the study show that 75.5% of the households in the study area use fuelwood, 44.4% use LPG, and 27.9% use crop residues for cooking. Households with LPG spend on average 3.02 h/day for cooking while households with biomass spend almost 4 h. Health expenditures of households using biomass are almost 25% higher than those using LPG. Use of traditional biomass with traditional devices was found to be having negative impacts on rural women's life. Household composition, education, income, access to electricity and LPG, and distance from the market were found to be significant factors affecting the choice of fuels for cooking. Clean energy and technologies and empowerment through education and awareness will help minimize the negative impacts of biomass fuels on women.

Status of indoor air pollution (IAP) through particulate matter (PM) emissions and associated health concerns in South Asia

Exposure to particulate emissions poses a variety of public health concerns worldwide, specifically in developing countries. This review summarized the documented studies on indoor particulate matter (PM) emissions and their major health concerns in South Asia. Reviewed literature illustrated the alarming levels of indoor air pollution (IAP) in India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh, while Sri Lanka and Bhutan are confronted with relatively lower levels, albeit not safe. To our knowledge, data on this issue are absent from Afghanistan and Maldives. We found that the reported levels of PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 in Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and India were 2-65, 3-30, 4-22, 2-28 and 1-139, 2-180, 3-77, 1-40 fold higher than WHO standards for indoor PM₁₀ (50 μg/m³) and PM_2.5 (25 μg/m³), respectively. Regarding IAP-mediated health concerns, mortality rates and incidences of respiratory and non-respiratory diseases were increasing with alarming rates, specifically in India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. The major cause might be the reliance of approximately 80% population on conventional biomass burning in the region. Current review also highlighted the prospects of IAP reduction strategies, which in future can help to improve the status of indoor air quality and public health in South Asia.

Relationship between household air pollution from biomass smoke exposure, and pulmonary dysfunction, oxidant-antioxidant imbalance and systemic inflammation in rural women and children in Nigeria

Background:

Exposure to particulate matter from burning biomass fuels is believed to affect oxidant-antioxidant balance and to induce oxidative stress.

Methods:

Fifty-nine mother-child pairs from 59 households that used firewood exclusively for cooking in three rural communities in southwest Nigeria underwent blood test for albumin, pre-albumin, retinol-binding protein (RBP), superoxide dismutase (SOD), vitamins C, vitamin E, malondialdehyde (MDA) and C-reactive protein (CRP). Spirometry was performed and indoor levels of PM_2.5 were determined.

Results:

Mean age (± SD; years) of mothers and children was 43.0±11.7 and 13.6±3.2, respectively. The median indoor PM_2.5 level was 1575.1 µg/m³ (IQR 943.6–2847.0, p<0.001), which is substantially higher than the World Health Organization (WHO) standard of 25 µg/m³. The mean levels of pre-albumin (0.21±0.14 g/dL) and RBP (0.03±0.03 g/dL) in women were significantly lower than their respective normal ranges (1-3 g/dL and 0.2-0.6 g/dL, respectively, p<0.05). Similarly, the mean levels of pre-albumin (0.19±0.13 g/dL) and RBP (0.01±0.01 g/dL) in children were significantly lower than the respective normal ranges (1-3 g/dL and 0.2-0.6 g/dL, respectively, p<0.05). Mean serum concentrations of MDA in children (5.44±1.88 µmol/L) was positively correlated to serum concentrations of CRP (r=0.3, p=0.04) and negatively correlated to lung function (FEV₁/FVC) in both mothers and children (both r=-0.3, p<0.05). Also, regression analysis indicates that CRP and SOD are associated with lung function impairment in mothers (-2.55±1.08, p<0.05) and children (-5.96±3.05, p=0.05) respectively.

Conclusion:

Exposure to HAP from biomass fuel is associated with pulmonary dysfunction, reduced antioxidant defense and inflammation of the airways. Further studies are needed to better define causal relationships and the mechanisms involved.

Interventions for mitigating indoor‐air pollution in Nigeria: a cost‐benefit analysis

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the costs and benefits of interventions to reduce indoor‐air pollution arising from the use of solid biomass fuels for cooking and heating in Nigeria.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors use cost‐benefit analysis and assess two intervention scenarios: providing access to improved stoves; and providing access to cleaner fuels (liquefied petroleum gas – LPG – burners). Both intervention scenarios are compared with the current situation, i.e. the “business as usual” scenario where there is no attempt to reduce the present level of exposure to indoor‐air pollution from solid fuel use.

Findings

The result shows that the cost‐benefit ratio of the stove intervention is 0.388 while that of LPG is 0.371.

Practical implications

While providing access to cleaner fuels (LPG) has a larger health impact on the population than improved stoves, the low income level of the participants will favor the stove option because of the lower recurrent cost which is usually borne by the participants. From a public health point of view, there is need for a continued emphasis on the promotion of improved stoves to reduce exposure in households using solid fuels until everyone can have access to cleaner fuels. Furthermore, since choice of cooking technologies is influenced by income level, the intervention policy should be implemented alongside other socio‐economic development programmes.

Originality/value

The paper bridges the knowledge gap with respect to the indoor‐air pollution issue in Nigeria. It offers policy makers an insight into the potential net benefit of intervening to reduce indoor‐air pollution arising from the use of solid biomass fuels in Nigeria.