Extended Reality in Spatial Sciences: A Review of Research Challenges and Future Directions

Precise Tool to Target Positioning Widgets (TOTTA) in Spatial Environments: A Systematic Review

TOTTA outlines the spatial position and rotation guidance of a real/virtual tool (TO) towards a real/virtual target (TA), which is a key task in Mixed reality applications. The task error can have critical consequences regarding safety, performance, and quality, such as surgical implantology or industrial maintenance scenarios. The TOTTA problem lacks a dedicated study and it is scattered in different domains with isolated designs. This work contributes to a systematic review of the TOTTA visual widgets, studying 70 unique designs from 24 papers. TOTTA is commonly guided by the visual overlap -an intuitive, pre-attentive "collimation" feedback- of simple shaped widgets: Box, 3D Axes, 3D Model, 2D Crosshair, Globe, Tetrahedron, Line, Plane. Our research discovers that TO and TA are often represented with the same shape. They are distinguished by topological elements (e.g. edges/vertices/faces), colors, transparency levels, and added. shapes, widget quantity, and size. Meanwhile some designs provide continuous "during manipulation feedback" relative to the distance between TO and TA by text, dynamic color, sonification, and amplified graphical visualization. Some approaches trigger discrete "TA reached feedback" such as color alteration, added sound, TA shape change, and added text. We found the lack of golden standards, including in testing procedures, as current ones are limited to partial sets with different and incomparable setups (different target configurations, avatar, background, etc.). We also found a bias in participants: right-handed, young male, non-color impaired.

Extended reality navigation for pain procedures: a narrative review

BACKGROUND

Extended reality (XR) technology, encompassing virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality, has been widely studied for procedural navigation in surgical specialties. Similar to how ultrasound transformed regional anesthesia, XR has the potential to reshape how anesthesiologists and pain physicians perform procedures to relieve pain.

OBJECTIVE

This narrative review examines the clinical benefits of XR for navigation in various pain procedures. It defines key terms and concepts related to XR technology and explores characteristics of procedures that are most amenable to XR-based navigation. Finally, it suggests best practices for developing XR navigation systems and discusses the role of emerging technology in the future of XR in regional anesthesia and pain medicine.

EVIDENCE REVIEW

A search was performed across PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials for primary literature investigating the clinical benefits of XR navigation for pain procedures.

FINDINGS

Thirteen studies using XR for procedural navigation are included. The evidence includes randomized controlled trials, retrospective studies, and case series.

CONCLUSIONS

Early randomized controlled trials show potential for XR to improve procedural efficiency, but more comprehensive research is needed to determine if there are significant clinical benefits. Case reports demonstrate XR's utility in generating patient-specific navigation plans when difficult anatomy is encountered. Procedures that facilitate the generation and registration of XR images are most conducive to XR navigation, whereas those that rely on frequent re-imaging will continue to depend on traditional modes of navigation.

Lightweight 3-D Convolutional Occupancy Networks for Virtual Object Reconstruction

The increasing demand for edge devices causes the necessity for recent technologies to be adaptable to nonspecialized hardware. In particular, in the context of augmented, virtual reality, and computer graphics, the 3-D object reconstruction task from a sparse point cloud is highly computationally demanding and for this reason, it is difficult to accomplish on embedded devices. In addition, the majority of earlier works have focused on mesh quality at the expense of speeding up the creation process. In order to find the best balance between time for mesh generation and mesh quality, we aim to tackle the object reconstruction process by developing a lightweight implicit representation. To achieve this goal, we leverage the use of convolutional occupancy networks. We show the effectiveness of the proposed approach through extensive experiments on the ShapeNet dataset using systems with different resources such as GPU, CPU, and an embedded device.

Extended Reality-Based Mobile App Solutions for the Therapy of Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders: Systematic Literature Review

BACKGROUND

The increasing prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has driven research interest on the therapy of individuals with autism, especially children, as early diagnosis and appropriate treatment can lead to improvement in the condition. With the widespread availability of virtual reality, augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality technologies to the public and the increasing popularity of mobile devices, the interest in the use of applications and technologies to provide support for the therapy of children with autism is growing.

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to describe the literature on the potential of virtual reality, AR, and mixed reality technologies in the context of therapy for children with ASD. We propose to investigate and analyze the temporal distribution of relevant papers, identify the target audience for studies related to extended reality apps in ASD therapy, examine the technologies used in the development of these apps, assess the skills targeted for improvement in primary studies, explore the purposes of the proposed solutions, and summarize the results obtained from their application.

METHODS

For the systematic literature review, 6 research questions were defined in the first phase, after which 5 international databases (Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, IEEE Xplore Digital Library, and ACM Digital Library) were searched using specific search strings. Results were centralized, filtered, and processed applying eligibility criteria and using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. The results were refined using a technical and IT-oriented approach. The quality criteria assessed whether the research addressed ASDs, focused on children's therapy, involved targeted technologies, deployed solutions on mobile devices, and produced results relevant to our study.

RESULTS

In the first step, 179 publications were identified in Zotero reference manager software (Corporation for Digital Scholarship). After excluding articles that did not meet the eligibility or quality assessment criteria, 28 publications were finalized. The analysis revealed an increase in publications related to apps for children with autism starting in 2015 and peaking in 2019. Most studies (22/28, 79%) focused on mobile AR solutions for Android devices, which were developed using the Unity 3D platform and the Vuforia engine. Although 68% (19/28) of these apps were tested with children, 32% (9/28) were tested exclusively by developers. More than half (15/28, 54%) of the studies used interviews as an evaluation method, yielding mostly favorable although preliminary results, indicating the need for more extensive testing.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings reported in the studies highlight the fact that these technologies are appropriate for the therapy of children with ASD. Several studies showed a distinct trend toward the use of AR technology as an educational tool for people with ASD. This trend entails multidisciplinary cooperation and an integrated research approach, with an emphasis on comprehensive empirical evaluations and technology ethics.

Design guidelines for limiting and eliminating virtual reality-induced symptoms and effects at work: a comprehensive, factor-oriented review

Virtual reality (VR) can induce side effects known as virtual reality-induced symptoms and effects (VRISE). To address this concern, we identify a literature-based listing of these factors thought to influence VRISE with a focus on office work use. Using those, we recommend guidelines for VRISE amelioration intended for virtual environment creators and users. We identify five VRISE risks, focusing on short-term symptoms with their short-term effects. Three overall factor categories are considered: individual, hardware, and software. Over 90 factors may influence VRISE frequency and severity. We identify guidelines for each factor to help reduce VR side effects. To better reflect our confidence in those guidelines, we graded each with a level of evidence rating. Common factors occasionally influence different forms of VRISE. This can lead to confusion in the literature. General guidelines for using VR at work involve worker adaptation, such as limiting immersion times to between 20 and 30 min. These regimens involve taking regular breaks. Extra care is required for workers with special needs, neurodiversity, and gerontechnological concerns. In addition to following our guidelines, stakeholders should be aware that current head-mounted displays and virtual environments can continue to induce VRISE. While no single existing method fully alleviates VRISE, workers' health and safety must be monitored and safeguarded when VR is used at work.

Isovists compactness and stairs as predictors of evacuation route choice

The building design is a crucial factor that can be actively adjusted and optimized to prevent human and property threats in emergency scenarios. Previous research suggests that specific building layouts may significantly influence human behaviour during evacuation. However, detailed empirical data about human behaviour in various types of buildings with different layouts are still missing and only marginal recommendations from this field are reflected in actual construction practice. In this study, desktop VR technologies were employed to study human decision-making in problematic T-intersections in the context of an emergency evacuation. More specifically, we studied fundamental attributes of buildings such as the width and length of the corridors and the presence of stairs to explore how they influence the choice of the evacuation route. The space-syntax isovist method was used to describe spatial parameters of corridors, which makes the results applicable to all buildings. Behavioural data from 208 respondents were analysed using multilevel regression models. Our results support previous claims concerning the importance of specific spatial layouts of evacuation corridors because respondents systematically chose wider and shorter corridors with visible staircases as the preferred evacuation route. The present findings further promote the ongoing discussion on the design of marked evacuation routes and building design that takes human factors into consideration.

Challenges in Implementing Low-Latency Holographic-Type Communication Systems

Holographic-type communication (HTC) permits new levels of engagement between remote users. It is anticipated that it will give a very immersive experience while enhancing the sense of spatial co-presence. In addition to the newly revealed advantages, however, stringent system requirements are imposed, such as multi-sensory and multi-dimensional data capture and reproduction, ultra-lightweight processing, ultra-low-latency transmission, realistic avatar embodiment conveying gestures and facial expressions, support for an arbitrary number of participants, etc. In this paper, we review the current limitations to the HTC system implementation and systemize the main challenges into a few major groups. Furthermore, we propose a conceptual framework for the realization of an HTC system that will guarantee the desired low-latency transmission, lightweight processing, and ease of scalability, all accompanied with a higher level of realism in human body appearance and dynamics.

Global trends and hotspots in research on extended reality in sports: A bibliometric analysis from 2000 to 2021

Objective

Extended reality technologies (e.g. virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR) and mixed reality (MR)) are gaining popularity in sports owing to their unique advantages. This study aims to analyse the progress of the application of extended reality technology in sports and reveal its cooperative features, research hotspots and development trends.

Methods

We searched the literature in the Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) database within the period 2000 to 2021 and conducted a bibliometric analysis. The analysis methods included statistical, co-occurrence, hierarchical clustering and social network analyses.

Results

A total of 340 articles were gathered. The literature related to its research showed an increasing trend over time. The paper collaboration rate was 90.88% (309/340 papers), and the degree of author collaboration was 3.96 (1345/340). VR was found to be the most productive journal, and Queen's University Belfast was the most productive institution. The United States, China and the United Kingdom were the three main contributors to the field. The foundational themes in sports extended reality research were (i) sports games and extended reality systems, (ii) virtual simulation devices and artificial intelligence, (iii) sports training and performance and (iv) age-appropriate physical activity, sports rehabilitation and physical education.

Conclusion

The level of author collaboration was low, but the degree of author collaboration is largely on the rise. The closeness of the collaboration between institutions and countries was also low. In addition, the subject of sport extended reality is relatively fragmented. Therefore, more research is needed to strengthen it in the future.

Data science for pedestrian and high street retailing as a framework for advancing urban informatics to individual scales

Background

In this paper, we consider the applicability of the customer journey framework from retailing as a driver for urban informatics at individual scales within urban science. The customer journey considers shopper experiences in the context of shopping paths, retail service spaces, and touch-points that draw them into contact. Around this framework, retailers have developed sophisticated data science for observation, identification, and measurement of customers in the context of their shopping behavior. This knowledge supports broad data-driven understanding of customer experiences in physical spaces, economic spaces of decision and choice, persuasive spaces of advertising and branding, and inter-personal spaces of customer-staff interaction.

Method

We review the literature on pedestrian and high street retailing, and on urban informatics. We investigate whether the customer journey could be usefully repurposed for urban applications. Specifically, we explore the potential use of the customer journey framework for producing new insight into pedestrian behavior, where a sort of empirical hyperopia has long abounded because data are always in short supply.

Results

Our review addresses how the customer journey might be used as a structure for examining how urban walkers come into contact with the built environment, how people actively and passively sense and perceive ambient city life as they move, how pedestrians make sense of urban context, and how they use this knowledge to build cognition of city streetscapes. Each of these topics has relevance to walking studies specifically, but also to urban science more generally. We consider how retailing might reciprocally benefit from urban science perspectives, especially in extending the reach of retailers' insight beyond store walls, into the retail high streets from which they draw custom.

Conclusion

We conclude that a broad set of theoretical frameworks, data collection schemes, and analytical methodologies that have advanced retail data science closer and closer to individual-level acumen might be usefully applied to accomplish the same in urban informatics. However, we caution that differences between retailers' and urban scientists' viewpoints on privacy presents potential controversy.

An Accurate and Efficient Quaternion-Based Visualization Approach to 2D/3D Vector Data for the Mobile Augmented Reality Map

Increasingly complex vector map applications and growing multi-source spatial data pose a serious challenge to the accuracy and efficiency of vector map visualization. It is true especially for real-time and dynamic scene visualization in mobile augmented reality, with the dramatic development of spatial data sensing and the emergence of AR-GIS. Such issues can be decomposed into three issues: accurate pose representation, fast and precise topological relationships computation and high-performance acceleration methods. To solve these issues, a novel quaternion-based real-time vector map visualization approach is proposed in this paper. It focuses on precise position and orientation representation, accurate and efficient spatial relationships calculation and acceleration parallel rendering in mobile AR. First, a quaternion-based pose processing method for multi-source spatial data is developed. Then, the complex processing of spatial relationships is mapped into simple and efficient quaternion-based operations. With these mapping methods, spatial relationship operations with large computational volumes can be converted into efficient quaternion calculations, and then the results are returned to respond to the interaction. Finally, an asynchronous rendering acceleration mechanism is also presented in this paper. Experiments demonstrated that the method proposed in this paper can significantly improve vector visualization of the AR map. The new approach, when compared to conventional visualization methods, provides more stable and accurate rendering results, especially when the AR map has strenuous movements and high frequency variations. The smoothness of the user interaction experience is also significantly improved.

Conceptual Design of an Extended Reality Exercise Game for the Elderly

Facing the increasingly serious ageing problem, IT technology is being applied more and more to alleviate the increasing health demands of the elderly. Virtual reality (VR) games, in particular, have been shown to benefit the physical and mental health of the elderly. However, almost all consumer-level VR games address the general user, not considering the characteristics of the elderly, such as their particular needs regarding cognitive aspects and safety. In addition, the existing VR rowing games’ research typically focuses on athlete training or is based on a rowing machine. Extending on previous research, this paper proposes a conceptual design of a VR rowing game, VRrowing to provide a home exercise game for the elderly which benefits both physical and mental health. This research first analysed the relevant literature and existing VR exercise games for the elderly to find characteristics and their particular needs. Then, following design principles (in exercise games, human–computer interaction, and user interfaces (UIs)) for the elderly, this study proposed a conceptual design of VRrowing through the MDA framework (standing for mechanics, dynamics, and aesthetics). The results cover the system architecture, activities and tasks, patterns and roles, mechanics and structures, and UI examples. Based on comprehensive consideration of the results from relevant research and fostering strengths and circumventing weaknesses, VRrowing was designed as a sports game, aimed at the elderly according to their characteristics and needs, which fills the void of home VR rowing games for seniors’ exercise. This research has reference value for scientific research or development personnel in VR game applications and evaluations, especially for such games targeting the elderly.

Potentials of Digitally Guided Excursions at Universities Illustrated Using the Example of an Urban Geography Excursion in Stuttgart

The main focus of this article is on digital excursion formats at universities and their advantages with and without pandemic-related restrictions on teaching. The development of the application, its didactics and feedback from students are demonstrated using the example of the urban geography excursion developed as part of the 'InExkurs' project at the University of Tübingen. Compared to traditional overview excursions, digitally guided formats allow students more flexibility, autonomy and independence in the implementation. Aspects of gamification and location-based games can be used to increase motivation and, in combination with individual navigation, create associations with scavenger hunts. The use of extended reality on mobile devices enables a diverse application of digital information on site: the use of historical maps and photos as well as the integration of (fictional) characters is exemplified using the developed digital urban geography excursion. The first feedback on the excursion showed that the majority of participating students appreciated the digital format and would like to participate in excursions in this or similar formats more often.

A Fast and Accurate Spatial Target Snapping Method for 3D Scene Modeling and Mapping in Mobile Augmented Reality

High-performance spatial target snapping is an essential function in 3D scene modeling and mapping that is widely used in mobile augmented reality (MAR). Spatial data snapping in a MAR system must be quick and accurate, while real-time human–computer interaction and drawing smoothness must also be ensured. In this paper, we analyze the advantages and disadvantages of several spatial data snapping algorithms, such as the 2D computational geometry method and the absolute distance calculation method. To address the issues that existing algorithms do not adequately support 3D data snapping and real-time snapping of high data volumes, we present a new adaptive dynamic snapping algorithm based on the spatial and graphical characteristics of augmented reality (AR) data snapping. Finally, the algorithm is experimented with by an AR modeling system, including the evaluation of snapping efficiency and snapping accuracy. Through the experimental comparison, we found that the algorithm proposed in this paper is substantially improved in terms of shortening the snapping time, enhancing the snapping stability, and improving the snapping accuracy of vector points, lines, faces, bodies, etc. The snapping efficiency of the algorithm proposed in this paper is 1.6 times higher than that of the traditional algorithm on average, while the data acquisition accuracy based on the algorithm in this paper is more than 6 times higher than that of the traditional algorithm on average under the same conditions, and its data accuracy is improved from the decimeter level to the centimeter level.

How to Promote User Purchase in Metaverse? A Systematic Literature Review on Consumer Behavior Research and Virtual Commerce Application Design

Virtual commerce applies immersive technology such as augmented reality and virtual reality into e-commerce to shift consumer perception from 2D product catalogs to 3D immersive virtual spaces. In virtual commerce, the alignment of application design paradigms and the factors influencing consumer behavior is paramount to promote purchase of products and services. The question of their relation needs to be answered, together with the possible improvement of application design. This paper used a systematic literature review approach to synthesize research on virtual commerce from both application design and consumer behavior research, considering the promotion of purchase in virtual commerce settings. Throughout the review, influential factors to purchase and preeminent design artifacts were identified. Then, the research gaps were discovered by mapping the design artifacts to the influential factors, which can inspire future research opportunities on the synergy of these two research directions. Moreover, the evolution of virtual commerce research along with multiple directions were discussed, including the suggestion of meta-commerce as a future trend.

Usability of WebXR Visualizations in Urban Planning

Extended reality (XR) technology is increasingly often considered in practical applications related to urban planning and smart city management. It offers many advantages as a new visualization technique that gives its users access to places that are not available in material space and a unique perspective on existing objects. It can provide immersive multi-sensory experience that can induce emotional response in participatory planning. However, standard mode of implementation that relies on mobile phone applications and VR headsets has a disadvantage when it comes to availability and accessibility. Here we test the WebXR solution that can mitigate those problems. We have created six AR and VR environments that resembled common urban planning scenarios and conducted usability tests with people having planning and GIS background. Results indicate that WebXR can provide useful solution in urban planning when the interface and environment resemble common practices and situations encountered in real life. Environments that have introduced new digital affordances like AR measurements or semi-transparent walkable scale models were rated lower. Users evaluated presented environment as having high usability and expressed their positive attitude toward using XR in their professional practice mainly as a participatory and visualization tool.

The Utilization of Augmented Reality Technology for Sustainable Skill Development for People with Special Needs: A Systematic Literature Review

New technologies such as Augmented Reality can be used to enhance the possibility of obtaining new experiences to assist people with special needs. However, in the literature, there are not enough studies conducted on the use of Augmented Reality as an assistive technology, especially for people with special needs. The purpose of this study is to highlight the use of Augmented Reality technology on people with special needs for skill development. This systematic literature review includes recent and high-quality articles from chosen prestige databases between the years 2010 and 2020. The selected studies which fitted the eligibility selection criteria have been analyzed and synthesized. The study findings reveal the importance of using AR technology to assist individuals with special needs in their skill development process, to help them become more independent. We hope this study will enlighten researchers and the developers of AR tools. It has been recommended that more studies be done on the sustainable use of AR as an assistive technology, particularly for children with special needs, to make their life easier.

A Multi-Perspective View on Immersive Virtual Environments (IVEs)

In recent years, the presence of immersive virtual reality (VR) in everyday life has increased, and VR is also being studied in research. However, this research is essentially limited to technical issues, while the social relevance of VR remains largely unconsidered. Current social science research on VR remains bound to an empiricist paradigm; a theoretical framing is only done in exceptions. This article presents current social science theories related to space and landscape research, describes their application and potentials, with regard to the investigation of virtual spaces, and discusses which theoretical positions are suitable for the investigation of particular immersive VR-related questions. This investigation presents a range of approaches such as essentialism, positivism, and constructivism; theories such as critical, conflict, and discourse; and more-than-representational theories such as Phenomenology, Assemblage, and Actor-Network-Theory.

School of the Future: A Comprehensive Study on the Effectiveness of Augmented Reality as a Tool for Primary School Children’s Education

With the emerging technologies of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), the learning process in today’s classroom is much more effective and motivational. Overlaying virtual content into the real world makes learning methods attractive and entertaining for students while performing activities. AR techniques make the learning process easy, and fun as compared to traditional methods. These methods lack focused learning and interactivity between the educational content. To make learning effective, we propose to use handheld marker-based AR technology for primary school students. We developed a set of four applications based on students’ academic course of primary school level for learning purposes of the English alphabet, decimal numbers, animals and birds, and an AR Globe for knowing about different countries around the world. These applications can be played wherever and whenever a user wants without Internet connectivity, subject to the availability of a tablet or mobile device and the required target images. These applications have performance evaluation quizzes (PEQs) for testing students’ learning progress. Our study investigates the effectiveness of AR-based learning materials in terms of learning performance, motivation, attitude, and behavior towards different methods of learning. Our activity results favor AR-based learning techniques where students’ learning motivation and performance are enhanced compared to the non-AR learning methods.

Surveying Reality (SurReal): Software to Simulate Surveying in Virtual Reality

Experiential learning through outdoor labs is an integral component of surveying education. Cancelled labs as a result of weather, the inability to visit a wide variety of terrain location, recent distance education requirements create significant instructional challenges. In this paper, we present a software solution called surveying reality (SurReal); this software allows for students to conduct immersive and interactive virtual reality labs. This paper discusses the development of a virtual differential leveling lab. The developed software faithfully replicates major steps followed in the field and any skills learned in virtual reality are transferable in the physical world. Furthermore, this paper presents a novel technique for leveling multi-legged objects like a tripod on variable terrain. This method relies solely on geometric modeling and does not require physical simulation of the tripod. This increases efficiency and ensures that the user experiences at least 60 frames per second, thus reducing lagging and creating a pleasant experience for the user. We conduct two leveling examples, a three-benchmark loop and a point-to-point leveling line. Both surveys had a misclosure of 1 mm due to observational random errors, which demonstrated that leveling can be conducted with mm-level precision, much like in the physical world.

CFD Visualization in a Virtual Reality Environment Using Building Information Modeling Tools

Scientific visualization has been an essential process in the engineering field, enabling the tracking of large-scale simulation data and providing intuitive and comprehendible graphs and models that display useful data. For computational fluid dynamics (CFD) data, the need for scientific visualization is even more important given the complicated spatial data structure and large quantities of data points characteristic of CFD data. To better take advantage of CFD results for buildings, the potential use of virtual reality (VR) techniques cannot be overlooked in the development of building projects. However, the workflow required to bring CFD simulation results to VR has not been streamlined. Building information modeling (BIM) as a lifecycle tool for buildings includes as much information as possible for further applications. To this end, this study brings CFD visualization to VR using BIM tools and reports the evaluation and analysis of the results.