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The limitations of targeting MEK signalling in Glioblastoma therapy. Sci Rep 2020; 10:7401. [PMID: 32366879 PMCID: PMC7198577 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-64289-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GB) is a highly aggressive, difficult to treat brain tumour. Successful treatment, consisting of maximal safe tumour de-bulking, followed by radiotherapy and treatment with the alkylating agent Temozolomide (TMZ), can extend patient survival to approximately 15 months. Combination treatments based on the inhibition of the PI3K pathway, which is the most frequently activated signalling cascade in GB, have so far only shown limited therapeutic success. Here, we use the clinically approved MEK inhibitor Trametinib to investigate its potential use in managing GB. Trametinib has a strong anti-proliferative effect on established GB cell lines, stem cell-like cells and their differentiated progeny and while it does not enhance anti-proliferative and cell death-inducing properties of the standard treatment, i.e. exposure to radiation or TMZ, neither does MEK inhibition block their effectiveness. However, upon MEK inhibition some cell populations appear to favour cell-substrate interactions in a sprouting assay and become more invasive in the Chorioallantoic Membrane assay, which assesses cell penetration into an organic membrane. While this increased invasion can be modulated by additional inhibition of the PI3K signalling cascade, there is no apparent benefit of blocking MEK compared to targeting PI3K.
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2
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Kattner P, Strobel H, Khoshnevis N, Grunert M, Bartholomae S, Pruss M, Fitzel R, Halatsch ME, Schilberg K, Siegelin MD, Peraud A, Karpel-Massler G, Westhoff MA, Debatin KM. Compare and contrast: pediatric cancer versus adult malignancies. Cancer Metastasis Rev 2020; 38:673-682. [PMID: 31832830 DOI: 10.1007/s10555-019-09836-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is a leading cause of death in both adults and children, but in terms of absolute numbers, pediatric cancer is a relatively rare disease. The rarity of pediatric cancer is consistent with our current understanding of how adult malignancies form, emphasizing the view of cancer as a genetic disease caused by the accumulation and selection of unrepaired mutations over time. However, considering those children who develop cancer merely as stochastically "unlucky" does not fully explain the underlying aetiology, which is distinct from that observed in adults. Here, we discuss the differences in cancer genetics, distribution, and microenvironment between adult and pediatric cancers and argue that pediatric tumours need to be seen as a distinct subset with their own distinct therapeutic challenges. While in adults, the benefit of any treatment should outweigh mostly short-term complications, potential long-term effects have a much stronger impact in children. In addition, clinical trials must cope with low participant numbers when evaluating novel treatment strategies, which need to address the specific requirements of children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Kattner
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | - Hannah Strobel
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | - Nika Khoshnevis
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | - Michael Grunert
- Department of Radiology, German Armed Forces Hospital of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Stephan Bartholomae
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | - Maximilian Pruss
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Rahel Fitzel
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | | | | | - Markus D Siegelin
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Aurelia Peraud
- Pediatric Neurosurgery Section, Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Mike-Andrew Westhoff
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Klaus-Michael Debatin
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany
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3
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Ho Shon I, Kumar D, Sathiakumar C, Berghofer P, Van K, Chicco A, Hogg PJ. Biodistribution and imaging of an hsp90 ligand labelled with 111In and 67Ga for imaging of cell death. EJNMMI Res 2020; 10:4. [PMID: 31960173 PMCID: PMC6971215 DOI: 10.1186/s13550-020-0590-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background 4-(N-(S-glutathionylacetyl)amino) phenylarsonous acid (GSAO) when conjugated at the γ-glutamyl residue with fluorophores and radio-isotopes is able to image dead and dying cells in vitro and in vivo by binding to intracellular 90-kDa heat shock proteins (hsp90) when cell membrane integrity is compromised. The ability to image cell death has potential clinical impact especially for early treatment response assessment in oncology. This work aims to assess the biodistribution and tumour uptake of diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid GSAO labelled with 111In ([111In]In-DTPA-GSAO) and 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid GSAO labelled with 67Ga ([67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO) in a murine subcutaneous tumour xenograft model and estimate dosimetry of [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO. Results There was good tumour uptake of both [111In]In-DTPA-GSAO and [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO (2.44 ± 0.26% injected activity per gramme of tissue (%IA/g) and 2.75 ± 0.34 %IA/g, respectively) in Balb c nu/nu mice bearing subcutaneous tumour xenografts of a human metastatic prostate cancer cell line (PC3M-luc-c6). Peak tumour uptake occurred at 2.7 h post injection. [111In]In-DTPA-GSAO and [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO demonstrated increased uptake in the liver (4.40 ± 0.86 %IA/g and 1.72 ± 0.27 %IA/g, respectively), kidneys (16.54 ± 3.86 %IA/g and 8.16 ± 1.33 %IA/g) and spleen (6.44 ± 1.24 %IA/g and 1.85 ± 0.44 %IA/g); however, uptake in these organs was significantly lower with [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO (p = 0.006, p = 0.017 and p = 0.003, respectively). Uptake of [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO into tumour was higher than all organs except the kidneys. There was negligible uptake in the other organs. Excretion of [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO was more rapid than [111In]In-DTPA-GSAO. Estimated effective dose of [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO for an adult male human was 1.54 × 10− 2 mSv/MBq. Conclusions [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO demonstrates higher specific uptake in dead and dying cells within tumours and lower uptake in normal organs than [111In]In-DTPA-GSAO. [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO may be potentially useful for imaging cell death in vivo. Dosimetry estimates for [67Ga]Ga-DOTA-GSAO are acceptable for future human studies. This work also prepares for development of 68Ga GSAO radiopharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Ho Shon
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, 2031, NSW, Australia. .,The Centenary Institute, NHMRC Clinical Trials Centre, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia. .,Prince of Wales Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, 2052, NSW, Australia.
| | - Divesh Kumar
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET, Fiona Stanley Hospital, Murdoch, 6150, WA, Australia
| | | | - Paula Berghofer
- LifeSciences Division, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, New Illawarra Road, Lucas Heights, Sydney, NSW, 2234, Australia
| | - Khang Van
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET, Liverpool Hospital, Liverpool, NSW, 2170, Australia
| | - Andrew Chicco
- Department of Medical Physics, Westmead Hospital, Westmead, NSW, 2145, Australia
| | - Philip J Hogg
- The Centenary Institute, NHMRC Clinical Trials Centre, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia
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4
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Jiang S, Tang X, Wang K, Liang Y, Qian Y, Lu C, Cai L. Hepatic functional and pathological changes of type 1 diabetic mice in growing and maturation time. J Cell Mol Med 2019; 23:5794-5807. [PMID: 31222979 PMCID: PMC6652934 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.14504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Revised: 05/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
To detect the changes in the liver function in both male and female OVE26 mice from young to adults for better understanding of type 1 diabetes‐induced hepatic changes, OVE26 mice and wild‐type FVB mice were raised in the same environment without any intervention, and then killed at 4, 12, 24 and 36 weeks for examining liver's general properties, including pathogenic and molecular changes. The influence of diabetes on the bodyweight of male and female mice was different. Both male and female OVE26 mice did not obtain serious liver injury or non‐alcoholic fatty liver disease, manifested by mild elevation of plasma alanine transaminase, and less liver lipid content along with significantly suppressed lipid synthesis. Uncontrolled diabetes also did not cause hepatic glycogen accumulation in OVE26 mice after 4 weeks. Oxidative stress test showed no change in lipid peroxidation, but increased protein oxidation. Changed endoplasmic reticulum stress and apoptosis along with increased antioxidant capacity was observed in OVE26 mice. In conclusion, uncontrolled type 1 diabetes did not cause hepatic lipid deposition most likely because of reduced lipids synthesis in response to insulin deficiency. Enhanced antioxidant capacity might not only prevent the occurrence of severe acute liver injury but also the self‐renewal, leading to liver dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saizhi Jiang
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Institute, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Xiaoqiang Tang
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Institute, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky.,The Center of Cardiovascular Disorders, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Kai Wang
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Institute, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Yaqing Liang
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China.,Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Institute, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky
| | - Yan Qian
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Chaosheng Lu
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Lu Cai
- Department of Pediatrics, Pediatric Research Institute, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky
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Bursch W. A cell's agony of choice: how to cross the Styx? : From morphological to molecular approaches to disclose its decision. Wien Med Wochenschr 2018; 168:300-306. [PMID: 30141112 PMCID: PMC6132567 DOI: 10.1007/s10354-018-0652-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The original “apoptosis–necrosis” concept was based on morphology and (patho)physiological conditions of the occurrence of cell death: (1) apoptosis, with nuclear and cytoplasmic condensation/fragmentation prominent, exclusion of autolysis, considered to result from coordinated self-destruction of a cell; (2) necrosis, with cell lysis prominent, caused by violent environmental perturbation leading to collapse of internal homeostasis. This suggestion initiated a controversial discussion within the scientific community and it soon became clear that the “apoptosis–necrosis dichotomy” was not generally applicable. Nowadays, there is sufficient evidence that cells may activate diverse suicide pathways, thereby allowing a flexible response to environmental changes, either physiological or pathological. The present paper commemorates electron microscopic and cytochemical studies on cell death of cultured human mammary carcinoma cells performed by Adi Ellinger, adding a significant contribution to recognize that autophagy can be involved in regulated cell death, thereby challenging the apoptosis–necrosis dichotomy still predominant in the 1990s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilfried Bursch
- Institute of Cancer Research, Medical University Vienna, Borschkegasse 8a, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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6
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The application of mRNA-based gene transfer in mesenchymal stem cell-mediated cytotoxicity of glioma cells. Oncotarget 2018; 7:55529-55542. [PMID: 27487125 PMCID: PMC5342434 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.10835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the tumor-oriented homing capacity of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) was discovered, MSCs have attracted great interest in the research field of cancer therapy mainly focused on their use as carries for anticancer agents. Differing from DNA-based vectors, the use of mRNA-based antituor gene delivery benefits from readily transfection and mutagenesis-free. However, it is essential to verify if mRNA transfection interferes with MSCs' tropism and their antitumor properties. TRAIL- and PTEN-mRNAs were synthesized and studied in an in vitro model of MSC-mediated indirect co-culture with DBTRG human glioma cells. The expression of TRAIL and PTEN in transfected MSCs was verified by immunoblotting analysis, and the migration ability of MSCs after anticancer gene transfection was demonstrated using transwell co-cultures. The viability of DBTRG cells was determined with bioluminescence, live/dead staining and real time cell analyzer. An in vivo model of DBTRG cell-derived xenografted tumors was used to verify the antitumor effects of TRAIL- and PTEN-engineered MSCs. With regard to the effect of mRNA transfection on MSCs' migration toward glioma cells, an enhanced migration rate was observed with MSCs transfected with all tested mRNAs compared to non-transfected MSCs (p<0.05). TRAIL- and PTEN-mRNA-induced cytotoxicity of DBTRG glioma cells was proportionally correlated with the ratio of conditioned medium from transfected MSCs. A synergistic action of TRAIL and PTEN was demonstrated in the current co-culture model. The immunoblotting analysis revealed the apoptotic nature of the cells death in the present study. The growth of the xenografted tumors was significantly inhibited by the application of MSCPTEN or MSCTRAIL/PTEN on day 14 and MSCTRAIL on day 28 (p<0.05). The results suggested that anticancer gene-bearing mRNAs synthesized in vitro are capable of being applied for MSC-mediated anticancer modality. This study provides an experimental base for further clinical anticancer studies using synthesized mRNAs.
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7
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Tehfe M, Tabchi S, Laterza MM, De Vita F. Ramucirumab in HER-2-positive gastroesophageal adenocarcinoma: an argument for overcoming trastuzumab resistance. Future Oncol 2018; 14:223-228. [PMID: 29318901 DOI: 10.2217/fon-2017-0434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM Patients with advanced gastric cancer have a relatively poor prognosis with few therapeutic alternatives beyond first-line therapy. The purpose of this manuscript is to highlight the potential for prolonged responses in patients with HER-2-positive disease. Patients, materials & methods: We analyzed the data of patients diagnosed with HER-2-positive-advanced gastric cancer who progressed on trastuzumab-based combination therapy and subsequently received second-line therapy consisting of ramucirumab in combination with paclitaxel. RESULTS Most patients had a stable disease after ramucirumab-based therapy (50%, 5/10), median duration to disease control was 8 months. CONCLUSION The prolonged duration of response that we observed indicates that an interaction between the EGF pathway and the angiogenesis pathway requires further clinical investigations.
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MESH Headings
- Adenocarcinoma/drug therapy
- Adenocarcinoma/genetics
- Adenocarcinoma/pathology
- Aged
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/administration & dosage
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/adverse effects
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/therapeutic use
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological/administration & dosage
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological/adverse effects
- Antineoplastic Agents, Immunological/therapeutic use
- Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols/adverse effects
- Antineoplastic Combined Chemotherapy Protocols/therapeutic use
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm
- Esophageal Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Esophageal Neoplasms/genetics
- Esophageal Neoplasms/pathology
- Esophagogastric Junction/pathology
- Female
- Humans
- Male
- Middle Aged
- Molecular Targeted Therapy
- Receptor, ErbB-2/genetics
- Retreatment
- Stomach Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Stomach Neoplasms/genetics
- Stomach Neoplasms/pathology
- Trastuzumab/therapeutic use
- Treatment Outcome
- Ramucirumab
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Affiliation(s)
- Mustapha Tehfe
- Department of Medical Oncology, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H2L 4M1, Canada
| | - Samer Tabchi
- Department of Medical Oncology, Centre Hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC H2L 4M1, Canada
| | | | - Ferdinando De Vita
- Department of Medical Oncology, University of Naples 'Luigi Vanvitelli', NA 80138, Italy
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Abstract
Any therapy that aims at eradicating a cancerous growth will have at its core a cell death-inducing component. Here we argue that paediatric oncology presents with its unique set of considerations and problems, which—while taking the lead from oncological research experiences obtained from the adult population—need to be clinically evaluated independently. This is particularly true when considering long-term side effects. Precision medicine offers a promising new approach in therapy, but given as a monotherapy and in a limited combination, as found in an apoptosis inducer/sensitiser combination, it will most likely lead to mutation escape of the target cell population and the emergence of resistance. However, using the increasing amount of the molecular data as the basis for a complex combination therapy combining several key components such as cell death-inducing agents, kinase inhibitors and BH3 mimetics, holds great promise.
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9
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Mahajan-Thakur S, Bien-Möller S, Marx S, Schroeder H, Rauch BH. Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) signaling in glioblastoma multiforme-A systematic review. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:E2448. [PMID: 29149079 PMCID: PMC5713415 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18112448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The multifunctional sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a lipid signaling molecule and central regulator in the development of several cancer types. In recent years, intriguing information has become available regarding the role of S1P in the progression of Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), the most aggressive and common brain tumor in adults. S1P modulates numerous cellular processes in GBM, such as oncogenesis, proliferation and survival, invasion, migration, metastasis and stem cell behavior. These processes are regulated via a family of five G-protein-coupled S1P receptors (S1PR1-5) and may involve mainly unknown intracellular targets. Distinct expression patterns and multiple intracellular signaling pathways of each S1PR subtype enable S1P to exert its pleiotropic cellular actions. Several studies have demonstrated alterations in S1P levels, the involvement of S1PRs and S1P metabolizing enzymes in GBM pathophysiology. While the tumorigenic actions of S1P involve the activation of several kinases and transcription factors, the specific G-protein (Gi, Gq, and G12/13)-coupled signaling pathways and downstream mediated effects in GBM remain to be elucidated in detail. This review summarizes the recent findings concerning the role of S1P and its receptors in GBM. We further highlight the current insights into the signaling pathways considered fundamental for regulating the cellular processes in GMB and ultimately patient prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sandra Bien-Möller
- Department of Pharmacology, University Medicine Greifswald, 17487 Greifswald, Germany.
- Clinic of Neurosurgery, University Medicine Greifswald, 17487 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Sascha Marx
- Clinic of Neurosurgery, University Medicine Greifswald, 17487 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Henry Schroeder
- Clinic of Neurosurgery, University Medicine Greifswald, 17487 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Bernhard H Rauch
- Department of Pharmacology, University Medicine Greifswald, 17487 Greifswald, Germany.
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10
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Polyalthia longifolia Methanolic Leaf Extracts (PLME) induce apoptosis, cell cycle arrest and mitochondrial potential depolarization by possibly modulating the redox status in hela cells. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 89:499-514. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.02.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
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11
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Vidomanova E, Racay P, Pilchova I, Halasova E, Hatok J. Microfluidic profiling of apoptosis-related genes after treatment with BH3-mimetic agents in astrocyte and glioblastoma cell lines. Oncol Rep 2016; 36:3188-3196. [PMID: 27779684 DOI: 10.3892/or.2016.5191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma (GB) is the most frequent and biologically the most aggressive primary brain tumor in adults. Standard treatment for newly diagnosed GB consists of surgical resection, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. Resistance to therapy is a major obstacle, even with optimal treatment with a survival median of only 12-15 months. The heterogeneity and treatment response of GB makes this tumor type a challenging area of research. The aim of our study was to study the response of normal human astrocyte (HA) and human GB (T98G) cell lines to apoptosis inhibitors in vitro. ABT-737 is an inhibitor of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, Bcl-w, while MIM-1 is an Mcl-1 protein inhibitor. The viability of the cells was assayed biochemically using the cytotoxic methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay. Changes in the expression of apoptosis-associated genes (n=93) in two human brain cell lines after treatment with the apoptosis inhibitors ABT-737 and MIM-1 (individually), between the apoptosis inhibitor treated group and the control group, were determined using a commercially pre-designed microfluidic array. Significant changes in apoptotic gene expression with more than a 2.0-fold difference in their expression levels were obtained in both cell lines; the most altered genes were in the HA cell line after MIM-1 treatment (n=42). These results contribute to the importance of apoptosis in normal and cancerous brain tissues and provide information on the effect of apoptosis inhibitors on cell viability and gene expression. Despite extensive investigations, a cure for GB is currently not available. The identification of an apoptotic gene panel and determining the sensitivity of normal and GB brain cells to individual apoptosis inhibitors could help to improve clinical practice and increase our understanding of brain tumor cell metabolism and apoptosis inhibitors in GB cells and astrocytes. Recognizing expression changes in pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes could contribute to the development of new treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Vidomanova
- Biomedical Center Martin, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava (JFM CU), SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Peter Racay
- Biomedical Center Martin, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava (JFM CU), SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Ivana Pilchova
- Biomedical Center Martin, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava (JFM CU), SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Erika Halasova
- Biomedical Center Martin, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava (JFM CU), SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Jozef Hatok
- Biomedical Center Martin, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava (JFM CU), SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
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12
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Westhoff MA, Marschall N, Debatin KM. Novel Approaches to Apoptosis-Inducing Therapies. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 930:173-204. [PMID: 27558822 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-39406-0_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Induction of apoptotic programmed cell death is one of the underlying principles of most current cancer therapies. In this review, we discuss the limitations and drawbacks of this approach and identify three distinct, but overlapping strategies to avoid these difficulties and further enhance the efficacy of apoptosis-inducing therapies. We postulate that the application of multi-targeted small molecule inhibitor cocktails will reduce the risk of the cancer cell populations developing resistance towards therapy. Following from these considerations regarding population genetics and ecology, we advocate the reconsideration of therapeutic end points to maximise the benefits, in terms of quantity and quality of life, for the patients. Finally, combining both previous points, we also suggest an altered focus on the cellular and molecular targets of therapy, i.e. targeting the (cancer cells') interaction with the tumour microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike-Andrew Westhoff
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | - Nicolas Marschall
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany
| | - Klaus-Michael Debatin
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany.
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13
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Westhoff MA, Brühl O, Debatin KM. Cancer therapy: know your enemy? Mol Cell Pediatr 2015; 1:10. [PMID: 26567104 PMCID: PMC4530549 DOI: 10.1186/s40348-014-0010-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Most cancer therapies are devised for adult or even elder patients. However, when dealing with pediatric cancers, additional considerations are needed. Conclusions This review discusses non-classic components of tumors and highlights possible treatment approaches which might be of particular benefit for children and adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike-Andrew Westhoff
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Oliver Brühl
- Laboratorio Analisi Sicilia Catania, 96016, Lentini (SR), Italy.
| | - Klaus-Michael Debatin
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Eythstrasse 24, 89075, Ulm, Germany.
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14
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Blahovcova E, Richterova R, Kolarovszki B, Dobrota D, Racay P, Hatok J. Apoptosis-related gene expression in tumor tissue samples obtained from patients diagnosed with glioblastoma multiforme. Int J Mol Med 2015; 36:1677-84. [PMID: 26459752 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2015.2369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumors of the brain are very diverse in their biological behavior and are therefore considered a major issue in modern medicine. The heterogeneity of gliomas, their clinical presentation and their responses to treatment makes this type of tumor a challenging area of research. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common, and biologically the most aggressive, primary brain tumor in adults. The standard treatment for patients with newly diagnosed GBM consists of surgical resection, radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, resistance to chemotherapy is a major obstacle to successful treatment. The aim of this study was to examine the changes occurring in the expression levels of apoptosis-associated genes in tumor tissue biopsy samples from 7 patients diagnosed with GBM and compare our results with a human astrocyte cell line (used as a reference) cultured under basic conditions. For molecular analysis, we used a commercial pre-designed microfluidic array to quantify the expression of 93 apoptosis-associated human genes. Significant changes in the expression levels of genes were observed in the tumor tissue samples obtained from patients with GBM. We determined significant changes in gene expression (n=32) in all apoptotic signaling pathways (BCl-2, TNF, Caspases, NF-κB, IAP and CARD), while the most pronounced deregulation (>5-fold) were observed in 46.9% events. The results of this study underline the importance of apoptosis in heterogenous tumor tissue. The identification of the apoptotic gene panel in tissue biopsies from patients with GBM may help improve the effectiveness of treatments for GBM in clinical practice and may broaden our understanding of brain tumor cell metabolism. Recognizing the changes in the expression of pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic genes may aid in the development of novel treatment strategies founded on a molecular basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Blahovcova
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Romana Richterova
- Clinic of Neurosurgery, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava and University Hospital in Martin, SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Branislav Kolarovszki
- Clinic of Neurosurgery, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava and University Hospital in Martin, SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Dusan Dobrota
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Peter Racay
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
| | - Jozef Hatok
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Comenius University in Bratislava, SK-03601 Martin, Slovakia
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15
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Martinez-Lostao L, de Miguel D, Al-Wasaby S, Gallego-Lleyda A, Anel A. Death ligands and granulysin: mechanisms of tumor cell death induction and therapeutic opportunities. Immunotherapy 2015; 7:883-2. [PMID: 26314314 DOI: 10.2217/imt.15.56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system plays a key role in cancer immune surveillance to control tumor development. The final goal is recognizing and killing transformed cells and consequently the elimination of the tumor. The main effector cell types exerting cytotoxicity against tumors are natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Although the mechanism of activation of NK cells and CTLs are quite different, both cell types share common antitumor effector mechanisms of cytotoxicity which lead to induction of cell death of tumor cells by apoptosis. Among these mechanisms are the death ligand- and granulysin-mediated cell deaths. In this review, we summarize the main concepts of these effector cytotoxic mechanisms against cancer cells, how NK cells and CTLs use them to control tumor development and the therapeutic approaches currently developed based on these molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Martinez-Lostao
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Zaragoza, C/Pedro Cerbuna 12, Zaragoza, 50009, Spain.,Instituto de Nanociencia de Aragón, Zaragoza Spain
| | - Diego de Miguel
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Zaragoza, C/Pedro Cerbuna 12, Zaragoza, 50009, Spain
| | - Sameer Al-Wasaby
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Zaragoza, C/Pedro Cerbuna 12, Zaragoza, 50009, Spain
| | - Ana Gallego-Lleyda
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Zaragoza, C/Pedro Cerbuna 12, Zaragoza, 50009, Spain
| | - Alberto Anel
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Biología Molecular y Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Zaragoza, C/Pedro Cerbuna 12, Zaragoza, 50009, Spain
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16
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Ströbele S, Schneider M, Schneele L, Siegelin MD, Nonnenmacher L, Zhou S, Karpel-Massle G, Westhoff MA, Halatsch ME, Debatin KM. A Potential Role for the Inhibition of PI3K Signaling in Glioblastoma Therapy. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0131670. [PMID: 26121251 PMCID: PMC4488267 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common primary brain tumor and among the most difficult to treat malignancies per se. In almost 90% of all GBM alterations in the PI3K/Akt/mTOR have been found, making this survival cascade a promising therapeutic target, particular for combination therapy that combines an apoptosis sensitizer, such as a pharmacological inhibitor of PI3K, with an apoptosis inducer, such as radio- or chemotherapy. However, while in vitro data focusing mainly on established cell lines has appeared rather promising, this has not translated well to a clinical setting. In this study, we analyze the effects of the dual kinase inhibitor PI-103, which blocks PI3K and mTOR activity, on three matched pairs of GBM stem cells/differentiated cells. While blocking PI3K-mediated signaling has a profound effect on cellular proliferation, in contrast to data presented on two GBM cell lines (A172 and U87) PI-103 actually counteracts the effect of chemotherapy. While we found no indications for a potential role of the PI3K signaling cascade in differentiation, we saw a clear and strong contribution to cellular motility and, by extension, invasion. While blocking PI3K-mediated signaling concurrently with application of chemotherapy does not appear to be a valid treatment option, pharmacological inhibitors, such as PI-103, nevertheless have an important place in future therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Ströbele
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Matthias Schneider
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Lukas Schneele
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Markus D. Siegelin
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Lisa Nonnenmacher
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Shaoxia Zhou
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Georg Karpel-Massle
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Mike-Andrew Westhoff
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Klaus-Michael Debatin
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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17
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Torres-Valencia JM, Motilva V, Manríquez-Torres JJ, García-Mauriño S, López-Lázaro M, Zbakh H, Calderón-Montaño JM, Gómez-Hurtado MA, Gayosso-De-Lucio JA, Cerda-García-Rojas CM, Joseph-Nathan P. Antiproliferative Activity of seco-Oxacassanes from Acacia schaffneri. Nat Prod Commun 2015. [DOI: 10.1177/1934578x1501000613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This work reports the antiproliferative activity of seco-oxacassanes 1–3, isolated from Acacia schaffneri, against human colon (HT-29), lung (A-549), and melanoma (UACC-62) cancer cell lines, as well as against their non-malignant counterparts CCD-841 CoN, MRC-5, and VH-10, respectively, using the sulforhodamine B test. While compounds 1 and 3 were inactive, 2 presented strong activity with IC50 values between 0.12 and 0.92 μg mL–1. The cytotoxicity mechanisms of 2 were investigated by cell cycle analysis and through DNA repair pathways, indicating that the compound is capable of arresting the cell cycle in the G0/G1 phase. This effect might be generated through damage to DNA by alkylation. In addition, compound 2 was able to decrease HT-29 migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Martín Torres-Valencia
- Área Académica de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Km 4.5 Carretera Pachuca-Tulancingo, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo, 42184 México
| | - Virginia Motilva
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Profesor García González No. 2, Sevilla, 41012 Spain
| | - J. Jesús Manríquez-Torres
- Área Académica de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Km 4.5 Carretera Pachuca-Tulancingo, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo, 42184 México
| | - Sofía García-Mauriño
- Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Profesor García González No. 2, Sevilla, 41012 Spain
| | - Miguel López-Lázaro
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Profesor García González No. 2, Sevilla, 41012 Spain
| | - Hanaa Zbakh
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Profesor García González No. 2, Sevilla, 41012 Spain
| | - José M. Calderón-Montaño
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, Profesor García González No. 2, Sevilla, 41012 Spain
| | - Mario A. Gómez-Hurtado
- Área Académica de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Km 4.5 Carretera Pachuca-Tulancingo, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo, 42184 México
| | - Juan A. Gayosso-De-Lucio
- Área Académica de Química, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Km 4.5 Carretera Pachuca-Tulancingo, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo, 42184 México
| | - Carlos M. Cerda-García-Rojas
- Departamento de Química, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Apartado 14–740, México, D.F., 07000 México
| | - Pedro Joseph-Nathan
- Departamento de Química, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Apartado 14–740, México, D.F., 07000 México
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18
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Westhoff MA, Karpel-Massler G, Brühl O, Enzenmüller S, La Ferla-Brühl K, Siegelin MD, Nonnenmacher L, Debatin KM. A critical evaluation of PI3K inhibition in Glioblastoma and Neuroblastoma therapy. MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR THERAPIES 2014; 2:32. [PMID: 26056598 PMCID: PMC4452069 DOI: 10.1186/2052-8426-2-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Members of the PI3K/Akt/mTor signaling cascade are among the most frequently altered proteins in cancer, yet the therapeutic application of pharmacological inhibitors of this signaling network, either as monotherapy or in combination therapy (CT) has so far not been particularly successful. In this review we will focus on the role of PI3K/Akt/mTOR in two distinct tumors, Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), an adult brain tumor which frequently exhibits PTEN inactivation, and Neuroblastoma (NB), a childhood malignancy that affects the central nervous system and does not harbor any classic alterations in PI3K/Akt signaling. We will argue that inhibitors of PI3K/Akt signaling can be components for potentially promising new CTs in both tumor entities, but further understanding of the signal cascade's complexity is essential for successful implementation of these CTs. Importantly, failure to do this might lead to severe adverse effects, such as treatment failure and enhanced therapy resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike-Andrew Westhoff
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Georg Karpel-Massler
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany ; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY USA
| | - Oliver Brühl
- Laboratorio Analisi Sicilia Catania, Lentini, SR Italy
| | - Stefanie Enzenmüller
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Markus D Siegelin
- Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY USA
| | - Lisa Nonnenmacher
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Klaus-Michael Debatin
- Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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19
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Westhoff MA, Karpel-Massler G, Brühl O, Enzenmüller S, La Ferla-Brühl K, Siegelin MD, Nonnenmacher L, Debatin KM. A critical evaluation of PI3K inhibition in Glioblastoma and Neuroblastoma therapy. MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR THERAPIES 2014; 2:32. [PMID: 26056598 PMCID: PMC4452069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Members of the PI3K/Akt/mTor signaling cascade are among the most frequently altered proteins in cancer, yet the therapeutic application of pharmacological inhibitors of this signaling network, either as monotherapy or in combination therapy (CT) has so far not been particularly successful. In this review we will focus on the role of PI3K/Akt/mTOR in two distinct tumors, Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), an adult brain tumor which frequently exhibits PTEN inactivation, and Neuroblastoma (NB), a childhood malignancy that affects the central nervous system and does not harbor any classic alterations in PI3K/Akt signaling. We will argue that inhibitors of PI3K/Akt signaling can be components for potentially promising new CTs in both tumor entities, but further understanding of the signal cascade's complexity is essential for successful implementation of these CTs. Importantly, failure to do this might lead to severe adverse effects, such as treatment failure and enhanced therapy resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike-Andrew Westhoff
- />Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Georg Karpel-Massler
- />Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
- />Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY USA
| | - Oliver Brühl
- />Laboratorio Analisi Sicilia Catania, Lentini, SR Italy
| | - Stefanie Enzenmüller
- />Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | | | - Markus D Siegelin
- />Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY USA
| | - Lisa Nonnenmacher
- />Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
| | - Klaus-Michael Debatin
- />Department of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, University Medical Center Ulm, Ulm, Germany
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20
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Long-term efficiency of mesenchymal stromal cell-mediated CD-MSC/5FC therapy in human melanoma xenograft model. Gene Ther 2014; 21:874-87. [PMID: 25056607 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2014.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2014] [Revised: 06/17/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) can be exploited as cellular delivery vehicles for the enzymes converting non-toxic prodrugs to toxic substances. Because of their inherent chemoresistance, they exert potent bystander and antitumor effect. Here we show that the human adipose tissue-derived MSC expressing fusion yeast cytosine deaminase::uracil phosphoribosyltransferase (CD-MSC) in combination with 5-fluorocytosine (5FC) mediated a long-term tumor-free survival in the 83.3% of tumor-bearing animals. CD-MSC/5FC treatment induced cytotoxicity against model human melanoma cells EGFP-A375. Only 4% of the therapeutic CD-MSC cells eliminated >98.5% of the tumor cells in vitro. Long-term tumor-free survival was confirmed in 15 out of the 18 animals. However, repeatedly used CD-MSC/5FC therapeutic regimen generated more aggressive and metastatic variant of the melanoma cells EGFP-A375/Rel3. These cells derived from the refractory xenotransplants exhibited increased resistance to the CD-MSC/5FC treatment, altered cell adhesion, migration, tumorigenic and metastatic properties. However, long-term curative effect was achieved by the augmentation of the CD-MSC/5FC regimen along with the inhibition of c-Met/hepatocyte growth factor signaling axis in this aggressive melanoma derivative. In summary, the CD-MSC/5FC regimen can be regarded as a very effective antitumor approach to achieve long-term tumor-free survival as demonstrated on a mouse model of aggressive human melanoma xenografts.
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