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Vakili B, Karami-Darehnaranji M, Mirzaei E, Hosseini F, Nezafat N. Graphene oxide as novel vaccine adjuvant. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 125:111062. [PMID: 37866317 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.111062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 09/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
To improve antigen immunogenicity and promote long-lasting immunity, vaccine formulations have been appropriately supplemented with adjuvants. Graphene has been found to enhance the presentation of antigens to CD8+ T cells, as well as stimulating innate immune responses and inflammatory factors. Its properties, such as large surface area, water stability, and high aspect ratio, make it a suitable candidate for delivering biological substances. Graphene-based nanomaterials have recently attracted significant attention as a new type of vaccine adjuvants due to their potential role in the activation of immune responses. Due to the limited functionality of some approved human adjuvants for use, the development of new all-purpose adjuvants is urgently required. Research on the immunological and biomedical use of graphene oxide (GO) indicates that these nanocarriers possess excellent physicochemical properties, acceptable biocompatibility, and a high capacity for drug loading. Graphene-based nanocarriers also could improve the function of some immune cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages through specific signaling pathways. However, GO injection can lead to significant oxidative stress and inflammation. Various surface functionalization protocols have been employed to reduce possible adverse effects of GO, such as aggregation of GO in biological liquids and induce cell death. Furthermore, these modifications enhance the properties of functionalized-GO's qualities, making it an excellent carrier and adjuvant. Shedding light on different physicochemical and structural properties of GO and its derivatives has led to their application in various therapeutic and drug delivery fields. In this review, we have endeavored to elaborate on different aspects of GO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bahareh Vakili
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mahboubeh Karami-Darehnaranji
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Esmaeil Mirzaei
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Farnaz Hosseini
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Medical Sciences and Technologies, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Navid Nezafat
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Computational Vaccine and Drug Design Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran.
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Achôa GL, Mattos PA, Clements A, Roca Y, Brooks Z, Ferreira JRM, Canal R, Fernandes TL, Riera R, Amano MT, Hokugo A, Jarrahy R, Lenz E Silva GF, Bueno DF. A scoping review of graphene-based biomaterials for in vivo bone tissue engineering. J Biomater Appl 2023; 38:313-350. [PMID: 37493398 DOI: 10.1177/08853282231188805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
The growing demand for more efficient materials for medical applications brought together two previously distinct fields: medicine and engineering. Regenerative medicine has evolved with the engineering contributions to improve materials and devices for medical use. In this regard, graphene is one of the most promising materials for bone tissue engineering and its potential for bone repair has been studied by several research groups. The aim of this study is to conduct a scoping review including articles published in the last 12 years (from 2010 to 2022) that have used graphene and its derivatives (graphene oxide and reduced graphene) in preclinical studies for bone tissue regeneration, searching in PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane Central, and clinicaltrials.gov (to confirm no study has started with clinical trial). Boolean searches were performed using the defined key words "bone" and "graphene", and manuscript abstracts were uploaded to Rayyan, a web-tool for systematic and scoping reviews. This scoping review was conducted based on Joanna Briggs Institute Manual for Scoping Reviews and the report follows the recommendations of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses - Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) statement. After the search protocol and application of the inclusion criteria, 77 studies were selected and evaluated by five blinded researchers. Most of the selected studies used composite materials associated with graphene and its derivatives to natural and synthetic polymers, bioglass, and others. Although a variety of graphene materials were analyzed in these studies, they all concluded that graphene, its derivatives, and its composites improve bone repair processes by increasing osteoconductivity, osteoinductivity, new bone formation, and angiogenesis. Thus, this systematic review opens up new opportunities for the development of novel strategies for bone tissue engineering with graphene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo L Achôa
- Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa, Hospital Sírio-Libanês, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Raul Canal
- Universidade Corporativa ANADEM, Brasília, Brazil
| | - Tiago L Fernandes
- Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa, Hospital Sírio-Libanês, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rachel Riera
- Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa, Hospital Sírio-Libanês, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Mariane T Amano
- Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa, Hospital Sírio-Libanês, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | | | - Daniela F Bueno
- Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa, Hospital Sírio-Libanês, São Paulo, Brazil
- Engenharia Metalúrgica e de Materiais, USP, São Paulo, Brazil
- Universidade Corporativa ANADEM, Brasília, Brazil
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3
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Ye T, Yang Y, Bai J, Wu FY, Zhang L, Meng LY, Lan Y. The mechanical, optical, and thermal properties of graphene influencing its pre-clinical use in treating neurological diseases. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1162493. [PMID: 37360172 PMCID: PMC10288862 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1162493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Rapid progress in nanotechnology has advanced fundamental neuroscience and innovative treatment using combined diagnostic and therapeutic applications. The atomic scale tunability of nanomaterials, which can interact with biological systems, has attracted interest in emerging multidisciplinary fields. Graphene, a two-dimensional nanocarbon, has gained increasing attention in neuroscience due to its unique honeycomb structure and functional properties. Hydrophobic planar sheets of graphene can be effectively loaded with aromatic molecules to produce a defect-free and stable dispersion. The optical and thermal properties of graphene make it suitable for biosensing and bioimaging applications. In addition, graphene and its derivatives functionalized with tailored bioactive molecules can cross the blood-brain barrier for drug delivery, substantially improving their biological property. Therefore, graphene-based materials have promising potential for possible application in neuroscience. Herein, we aimed to summarize the important properties of graphene materials required for their application in neuroscience, the interaction between graphene-based materials and various cells in the central and peripheral nervous systems, and their potential clinical applications in recording electrodes, drug delivery, treatment, and as nerve scaffolds for neurological diseases. Finally, we offer insights into the prospects and limitations to aid graphene development in neuroscience research and nanotherapeutics that can be used clinically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Ye
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
- Interdisciplinary Program of Biological Functional Molecules, College of Intergration Science, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yi Yang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Jin Bai
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Feng-Ying Wu
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
- Interdisciplinary Program of Biological Functional Molecules, College of Intergration Science, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Lu Zhang
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Long-Yue Meng
- Department of Environmental Science, Department of Chemistry, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Yan Lan
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, College of Medicine, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
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Tang W, Wang J, Hou H, Li Y, Wang J, Fu J, Lu L, Gao D, Liu Z, Zhao F, Gao X, Ling P, Wang F, Sun F, Tan H. Review: Application of chitosan and its derivatives in medical materials. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 240:124398. [PMID: 37059277 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023]
Abstract
Chitin is a natural polymeric polysaccharide extracted from marine crustaceans, and chitosan is obtained by removing part of the acetyl group (usually more than 60 %) in chitin's structure. Chitosan has attracted wide attention from researchers worldwide due to its good biodegradability, biocompatibility, hypoallergenic and biological activities (antibacterial, immune and antitumor activities). However, research has shown that chitosan does not melt or dissolve in water, alkaline solutions and general organic solvents, which greatly limits its application range. Therefore, researchers have carried out extensive and in-depth chemical modification of chitosan and prepared a variety of chitosan derivatives, which have expanded the application field of chitosan. Among them, the most extensive research has been conducted in the pharmaceutical field. This paper summarizes the application of chitosan and chitosan derivatives in medical materials over the past five years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Tang
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Juan Wang
- Jinan Maternity and Child Care Hospital Affiliated to Shandong First Medical University, Jinan 250001, Shandong, China
| | - Huiwen Hou
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Yan Li
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Jie Wang
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Jiaai Fu
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Lu Lu
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Didi Gao
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Zengmei Liu
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Feiyan Zhao
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Xinqing Gao
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Peixue Ling
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; School of Pharmaceutical sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, Shandong, China
| | - Fengshan Wang
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; School of Pharmaceutical sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, Shandong, China
| | - Feng Sun
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China
| | - Haining Tan
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; NMPA Key Laboratory for Quality Research and Evaluation of Carbohydrate-Based Medicine, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; Shandong Provincial Technology Innovation Center of Carbohydrate, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, Shandong, China; School of Pharmaceutical sciences, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, Shandong, China.
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Tian Y, Wu D, Wu D, Cui Y, Ren G, Wang Y, Wang J, Peng C. Chitosan-Based Biomaterial Scaffolds for the Repair of Infected Bone Defects. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:899760. [PMID: 35600891 PMCID: PMC9114740 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.899760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The treatment of infected bone defects includes infection control and repair of the bone defect. The development of biomaterials with anti-infection and osteogenic ability provides a promising strategy for the repair of infected bone defects. Owing to its antibacterial properties, chitosan (an emerging natural polymer) has been widely studied in bone tissue engineering. Moreover, it has been shown that chitosan promotes the adhesion and proliferation of osteoblast-related cells, and can serve as an ideal carrier for bone-promoting substances. In this review, the specific molecular mechanisms underlying the antibacterial effects of chitosan and its ability to promote bone repair are discussed. Furthermore, the properties of several kinds of functionalized chitosan are analyzed and compared with those of pure chitosan. The latest research on the combination of chitosan with different types of functionalized materials and biomolecules for the treatment of infected bone defects is also summarized. Finally, the current shortcomings of chitosan-based biomaterials for the treatment of infected bone defects and future research directions are discussed. This review provides a theoretical basis and advanced design strategies for the use of chitosan-based biomaterials in the treatment of infected bone defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhang Tian
- Orthopedic Medical Center, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Danhua Wu
- The People’s Hospital of Chaoyang District, Changchun, China
| | - Dankai Wu
- Orthopedic Medical Center, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yutao Cui
- Orthopedic Medical Center, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Guangkai Ren
- Orthopedic Medical Center, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yanbing Wang
- Orthopedic Medical Center, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jincheng Wang
- Orthopedic Medical Center, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Chuangang Peng
- Orthopedic Medical Center, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
- *Correspondence: Chuangang Peng,
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Abstract
Chitosan (CS) and graphene oxide (GO) nanocomposites have received wide attention in biomedical fields due to the synergistic effect between CS which has excellent biological characteristics and GO which owns great physicochemical, mechanical, and optical properties. Nanocomposites based on CS and GO can be fabricated into a variety of forms, such as nanoparticles, hydrogels, scaffolds, films, and nanofibers. Thanks to the ease of functionalization, the performance of these nanocomposites in different forms can be further improved by introducing other functional polymers, nanoparticles, or growth factors. With this background, the current review summarizes the latest developments of CS-GO nanocomposites in different forms and compositions in biomedical applications including drug and biomacromolecules delivery, wound healing, bone tissue engineering, and biosensors. Future improving directions and challenges for clinical practice are proposed as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjun Feng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Zhengke Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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Valencia-Llano CH, Solano MA, Grande-Tovar CD. Nanocomposites of Chitosan/Graphene Oxide/Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles/Blackberry Waste Extract as Potential Bone Substitutes. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13223877. [PMID: 34833175 PMCID: PMC8618967 DOI: 10.3390/polym13223877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
New technologies based on nanocomposites of biopolymers and nanoparticles inspired by the nature of bone structure have accelerated their application in regenerative medicine, thanks to the introduction of reinforcing properties. Our research incorporated chitosan (CS) covalently crosslinked with glutaraldehyde (GLA) beads with graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets, titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2), and blackberry processing waste extract (BBE) and evaluated them as partial bone substitutes. Skullbone defects in biomodels filled with the scaffolds showed evidence through light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, histological studies, soft tissue development with hair recovery, and absence of necrotic areas or aggressive infectious response of the immune system after 90 days of implantation. More interestingly, newly formed bone was evidenced by elemental analysis and Masson trichromacy analysis, which demonstrated a possible osteoinductive effect from the beads using the critical size defect experimental design in the biomodels. The results of this research are auspicious for the development of bone substitutes and evidence that the technologies for tissue regeneration, including chitosan nanocomposites, are beneficial for the adhesion and proliferation of bone cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Moisés A. Solano
- Grupo de Investigación de Fotoquímica y Fotobiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Programa de Química, Universidad del Atlántico, Carrera 30 Número 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081008, Colombia;
| | - Carlos David Grande-Tovar
- Grupo de Investigación de Fotoquímica y Fotobiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Programa de Química, Universidad del Atlántico, Carrera 30 Número 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081008, Colombia;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +57-5-3599-484
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8
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Valencia AM, Valencia CH, Zuluaga F, Grande-Tovar CD. Synthesis and fabrication of films including graphene oxide functionalized with chitosan for regenerative medicine applications. Heliyon 2021; 7:e07058. [PMID: 34095569 PMCID: PMC8165423 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Graphene oxide (GO) has recently gained attention as a scaffold reinforcing agent for tissue engineering. Biomechanical and biological properties through a synergistic effect can be strengthened when combined with other materials such as chitosan (CS). For that reason, chitosan was used for Graphene Oxide (GO) functionalization through an amide group whose formation was evident by bands around 1600 cm−1 in the FTIR analysis. Furthermore, bands located at 1348 cm−1 (D band), 1593 cm−1 (G band), and 2416 cm−1 (2D band) in the RAMAN spectrum, and the displacement of the signal at 87.03 ppm (C5) in solid-state 13C-NMR confirmed the amide formation. Films including the CS-GO compound were prepared and characterized by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), where CS-GO film presented a lighter mass loss (~10% less loosed) than CS due probably to the covalent functionalization with GO, providing film thermal resistance. The CS-GO films synthesized were implanted in Wistar rats' subdermal tissue as a first approximation to the biological response. In vivo tests showed a low inflammatory response, good cicatrization, and advanced resorption at 60 days of implantation, as indicated by histological images. It was evidenced that the covalent union between CS and GO increased biocompatibility and the degradation/resorption capacity, demonstrating tissue regeneration with typical characteristics and tiny remnants of implanted material surrounded by a type III collagen capsule. These results show the potential application of the new synthesized films, including the CS-GO compound, in tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana María Valencia
- Laboratorio SIMERQO Polímeros, Departamento de Química, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 # 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia
| | - Carlos Humberto Valencia
- Escuela de Odontología, Grupo Biomateriales Dentales, Universidad del Valle, Calle 4B No. 36-00, Cali 76001, Colombia
| | - Fabio Zuluaga
- Laboratorio SIMERQO Polímeros, Departamento de Química, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 # 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia
| | - Carlos David Grande-Tovar
- Grupo de Investigación de Fotoquímica y Fotobiología, Universidad del Atlántico, Carrera 30 Número 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081008, Colombia
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Graphene-based nanomaterial system: a boon in the era of smart nanocarriers. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-021-00513-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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10
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Umar AA, Abdul Patah MF, Abnisa F, Daud WMAW. Preparation of magnetized iron oxide grafted on graphene oxide for hyperthermia application. REV CHEM ENG 2020. [DOI: 10.1515/revce-2020-0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Magnetic hyperthermia therapy (MHT) is a highly promising therapeutic modality for the treatment of different kinds of cancers and malignant tumors. The therapy is based on the concept that; iron oxide nanoparticles deposited at cancer sites can generate heat when exposed to an alternating current magnetic field or near infrared radiation and consequently destroying only the cancer cells by exploiting their vulnerability to heat. The fact that the treatment is at molecular level and that iron oxide nanoparticles provide more guided focus heating justifies its efficacy over treatment such as surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Nevertheless, the spread of MHT as the next-generation therapeutics has been shadowed by insufficient heating especially at the in vivo stage. This can be averted by modifying the iron oxide nanoparticle structure. To this end, various attempts have been made by developing a magnetic hybrid nanostructure capable of generating efficient heat. However, the synthesis method for each component (of the magnetic hybrid nanostructure) and the grafting process is now an issue. This has a direct effect on the performance of the magnetic hybrid nanostructure in MHT and other applications. The main objective of this review is to detail out the different materials, methods and characterization techniques that have been used so far in developing magnetic hybrid nanostructure. In view of this, we conducted a comprehensive review and present a road map for developing a magnetic hybrid nanostructure that is capable of generating optimum heat during MHT. We further summarize the various characterization techniques and necessary parameters to study in validating the efficiency of the magnetic hybrid nanostructure. Hopefully, this contribution will serve as a guide to researchers that are willing to evaluate the properties of their magnetic hybrid nanostructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad Abulfathi Umar
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering , University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur 50603 , Malaysia
| | - Muhamad Fazly Abdul Patah
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering , University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur 50603 , Malaysia
| | - Faisal Abnisa
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering , King Abdulaziz University , Rabigh 21911 , Saudi Arabia
| | - Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering , University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur 50603 , Malaysia
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Wang L, Lu R, Hou J, Nan X, Xia Y, Guo Y, Meng K, Xu C, Wang X, Zhao B. Application of injectable silk fibroin/graphene oxide hydrogel combined with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells in bone tissue engineering. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2020.125318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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12
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Synthesis of Chitosan Beads Incorporating Graphene Oxide/Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles for In Vivo Studies. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25102308. [PMID: 32423061 PMCID: PMC7287625 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25102308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Scaffold development for cell regeneration has increased in recent years due to the high demand for more efficient and biocompatible materials. Nanomaterials have become a critical alternative for mechanical, thermal, and antimicrobial property reinforcement in several biopolymers. In this work, four different chitosan (CS) bead formulations crosslinked with glutaraldehyde (GLA), including titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2), and graphene oxide (GO) nanosheets, were prepared with potential biomedical applications in mind. The characterization of by FTIR spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), demonstrated an efficient preparation of nanocomposites, with nanoparticles well-dispersed in the polymer matrix. In vivo, subdermal implantation of the beads in Wistar rat′s tissue for 90 days showed a proper and complete healing process without any allergenic response to any of the formulations. Masson′s trichrome staining of the histological implanted tissues demonstrated the presence of a group of macrophage/histiocyte compatible cells, which indicates a high degree of biocompatibility of the beads. The materials were very stable under body conditions as the morphometry studies showed, but with low resorption percentages. These high stability beads could be used as biocompatible, resistant materials for long-term applications. The results presented in this study show the enormous potential of these chitosan nanocomposites in cell regeneration and biomedical applications.
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Bałaban J, Wierzbicki M, Zielińska M, Szczepaniak J, Sosnowska M, Daniluk K, Cysewski D, Koczoń P, Chwalibog A, Sawosz E. Effects of Graphene Oxide Nanofilm and Chicken Embryo Muscle Extract on Muscle Progenitor Cell Differentiation and Contraction. Molecules 2020; 25:E1991. [PMID: 32340398 PMCID: PMC7221809 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25081991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Finding an effective muscle regeneration technique is a priority for regenerative medicine. It is known that the key factors determining tissue formation include cells, capable of proliferating and/or differentiating, a niche (surface) allowing their colonization and growth factors. The interaction between these factors, especially between the surface of the artificial niche and growth factors, is not entirely clear. Moreover, it seems that the use of a complex of complementary growth factors instead of a few strictly defined ones could increase the effectiveness of tissue maturation, including muscle tissue. In this study, we evaluated whether graphene oxide (GO) nanofilm, chicken embryo muscle extract (CEME), and GO combined with CEME would affect the differentiation and functional maturation of muscle precursor cells, as well as the ability to spontaneously contract a pseudo-tissue muscle. CEME was extracted on day 18 of embryogenesis. Muscle cells obtained from an 8-day-old chicken embryo limb bud were treated with GO and CEME. Cell morphology and differentiation were observed using different microscopy methods. Cytotoxicity and viability of cells were measured by lactate dehydrogenase and Vybrant Cell Proliferation assays. Gene expression of myogenic regulatory genes was measured by Real-Time PCR. Our results demonstrate that CEME, independent of the culture surface, was the main factor influencing the intense differentiation of muscle progenitor cells. The present results, for the first time, clearly demonstrated that the cultured tissue-like structure was capable of inducing contractions without externally applied impulses. It has been indicated that a small amount of CEME in media (about 1%) allows the culture of pseudo-tissue muscle capable of spontaneous contraction. The study showed that the graphene oxide may be used as a niche for differentiating muscle cells, but the decisive influence on the maturation of muscle tissue, especially muscle contractions, depends on the complexity of the applied growth factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaśmina Bałaban
- Department of Nanobiotechnology and Experimental Ecology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; (J.B.); (M.W.); (M.Z.); (J.S.); (M.S.); (K.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Mateusz Wierzbicki
- Department of Nanobiotechnology and Experimental Ecology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; (J.B.); (M.W.); (M.Z.); (J.S.); (M.S.); (K.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Marlena Zielińska
- Department of Nanobiotechnology and Experimental Ecology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; (J.B.); (M.W.); (M.Z.); (J.S.); (M.S.); (K.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Jarosław Szczepaniak
- Department of Nanobiotechnology and Experimental Ecology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; (J.B.); (M.W.); (M.Z.); (J.S.); (M.S.); (K.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Malwina Sosnowska
- Department of Nanobiotechnology and Experimental Ecology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; (J.B.); (M.W.); (M.Z.); (J.S.); (M.S.); (K.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Karolina Daniluk
- Department of Nanobiotechnology and Experimental Ecology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; (J.B.); (M.W.); (M.Z.); (J.S.); (M.S.); (K.D.); (E.S.)
| | - Dominik Cysewski
- Spectrometry Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Science, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - Piotr Koczoń
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Food Sciences, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland;
| | - André Chwalibog
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Copenhagen, 1870 Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Ewa Sawosz
- Department of Nanobiotechnology and Experimental Ecology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; (J.B.); (M.W.); (M.Z.); (J.S.); (M.S.); (K.D.); (E.S.)
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Grande Tovar CD, Castro JI, Valencia CH, Navia Porras DP, Herminsul Mina Hernandez J, Valencia Zapata ME, Chaur MN. Nanocomposite Films of Chitosan-Grafted Carbon Nano-Onions for Biomedical Applications. Molecules 2020; 25:E1203. [PMID: 32155970 PMCID: PMC7179466 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25051203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The design of scaffolding from biocompatible and resistant materials such as carbon nanomaterials and biopolymers has become very important, given the high rate of injured patients. Graphene and carbon nanotubes, for example, have been used to improve the physical, mechanical, and biological properties of different materials and devices. In this work, we report the grafting of carbon nano-onions with chitosan (CS-g-CNO) through an amide-type bond. These compounds were blended with chitosan and polyvinyl alcohol composites to produce films for subdermal implantation in Wistar rats. Films with physical mixture between chitosan, polyvinyl alcohol, and carbon nano-onions were also prepared for comparison purposes. Film characterization was performed with Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Tensile strength, X-ray Diffraction Spectroscopy (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The degradation of films into simulated body fluid (SBF) showed losses between 14% and 16% of the initial weight after 25 days of treatment. Still, a faster degradation (weight loss and pH changes) was obtained with composites of CS-g-CNO due to a higher SBF interaction by hydrogen bonding. On the other hand, in vivo evaluation of nanocomposites during 30 days in Wistar rats, subdermal tissue demonstrated normal resorption of the materials with lower inflammation processes as compared with the physical blends of ox-CNO formulations. SBF hydrolytic results agreed with the in vivo degradation for all samples, demonstrating that with a higher ox-CNO content increased the stability of the material and decreased its degradation capacity; however, we observed greater reabsorption with the formulations including CS-g-CNO. With this research, we demonstrated the future impact of CS/PVA/CS-g-CNO nanocomposite films for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos David Grande Tovar
- Grupo de investigación de fotoquímica y fotobiología, Universidad del Atlántico, Carrera 30 Número 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081008, Colombia;
| | - Jorge Iván Castro
- Grupo de Investigación SIMERQO, Departamento de Química, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia;
| | - Carlos Humberto Valencia
- Escuela de Odontología, Grupo biomateriales dentales, Universidad del Valle, Calle 4B # 36-00, Cali 76001, Colombia;
| | - Diana Paola Navia Porras
- Grupo de Investigación Biotecnología, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de San Buenaventura Cali, Carrera 122 # 6-65, Cali 76001, Colombia;
| | - José Herminsul Mina Hernandez
- Escuela de Ingeniería de Materiales, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Santiago de Cali 760032, Colombia;
| | - Mayra Eliana Valencia Zapata
- Escuela de Ingeniería de Materiales, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Santiago de Cali 760032, Colombia;
| | - Manuel N. Chaur
- Grupo de Investigación SIMERQO, Departamento de Química, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia;
- Centro de Excelencia en Nuevos Materiales (CENM), Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Santiago de Cali 760032, Colombia
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Grande Tovar CD, Castro JI, Valencia CH, Navia Porras DP, Mina Hernandez JH, Valencia ME, Velásquez JD, Chaur MN. Preparation of Chitosan/Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) Nanocomposite Films Incorporated with Oxidized Carbon Nano-Onions (Multi-Layer Fullerenes) for Tissue-Engineering Applications. Biomolecules 2019; 9:E684. [PMID: 31683889 PMCID: PMC6920947 DOI: 10.3390/biom9110684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, tissue engineering became a very important medical alternative in patients who need to regenerate damaged or lost tissues through the use of scaffolds that support cell adhesion and proliferation. Carbon nanomaterials (carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, multi-wall fullerenes, and graphene) became a very important alternative to reinforce the mechanical, thermal, and antimicrobial properties of several biopolymers. In this work, five different formulations of chitosan/poly(vinyl alcohol)/oxidized carbon nano-onions (CS/PVA/ox-CNO) were used to prepare biodegradable scaffolds with potential biomedical applications. Film characterization consisted of Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), tension strength, Young's modulus, X-ray diffraction spectroscopy (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The degradation in a simulated body fluid (FBS) demonstrated that all the formulations lost between 75% and 80% of their weight after 15 days of treatment, but the degradation decreased with the ox-CNO content. In vivo tests after 90 days of subdermal implantation of the nanocomposite films in Wistar rats' tissue demonstrated good biocompatibility without allergenic reactions or pus formation. There was a good correlation between FBS hydrolytic degradation and degradation in vivo for all the samples, since the ox-CNO content increased the stability of the material. All these results indicate the potential of the CS/PVA/ox-CNO nanocomposite films in tissue engineering, especially for long-term applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos David Grande Tovar
- Grupo de Investigación de fotoquímica y fotobiología, Universidad del Atlántico, Carrera 30 Número 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081008, Colombia.
| | - Jorge Iván Castro
- Grupo de Investigación SIMERQO, Departamento de Química, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia.
| | - Carlos Humberto Valencia
- Escuela de Odontología, Grupo biomateriales dentales, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia.
| | - Diana Paola Navia Porras
- Grupo de Investigación Biotecnología, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad de San Buenaventura Cali, Carrera 122 # 6-65, Cali 76001, Colombia.
| | - José Herminsul Mina Hernandez
- Escuela de Ingeniería de Materiales, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Santiago de Cali 760032, Colombia.
| | - Mayra Eliana Valencia
- Escuela de Ingeniería de Materiales, Facultad de Ingeniería, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Santiago de Cali 760032, Colombia.
| | - José Daniel Velásquez
- Grupo de Investigación SIMERQO, Departamento de Química, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia.
| | - Manuel N Chaur
- Grupo de Investigación SIMERQO, Departamento de Química, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia.
- Centro de Excelencia en Nuevos Materiales (CENM), Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 No. 100-00, Santiago de Cali 760032, Colombia.
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Biocompatible and Antimicrobial Electrospun Membranes Based on Nanocomposites of Chitosan/Poly (Vinyl Alcohol)/Graphene Oxide. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20122987. [PMID: 31248075 PMCID: PMC6627348 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20122987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue engineering is gaining attention rapidly to replace and repair defective tissues in the human body after illnesses and accidents in different organs. Electrospun nanofiber scaffolds have emerged as a potential alternative for cell regeneration and organ replacement. In this paper, porous membranes, based on nanofibrous chitosan (CS), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and graphene oxide (GO), were obtained via electrospinning methodology. Three different formulations were obtained varying GO content, being characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). In vitro tests were carried out, consisting of hydrolytic degradation inside simulated biological fluid (SBF), and in vivo tests were carried out, where the material was implanted in Wistar rats’ subcutaneous tissue to determine its biocompatibility. The antibacterial activity was tested against Gram-positive bacteria Bacilluscereus and Staphylococcusaureus, and against Gram-negative Salmonellaenterica and Escherichiacoli, by contact of the electrospun nanofiber scaffolds above inoculum bacterial in Müeller Hinton agar with good inhibition only for scaffolds with the higher GO content (1.0%). The results confirmed good biocompatibility of the nanofibrous scaffolds after in vivo tests in Wistar rats, which evidences its high potential in applications of tissue regeneration.
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Valencia Zapata ME, Mina Hernandez JH, Grande Tovar CD, Valencia Llano CH, Diaz Escobar JA, Vázquez-Lasa B, San Román J, Rojo L. Novel Bioactive and Antibacterial Acrylic Bone Cement Nanocomposites Modified with Graphene Oxide and Chitosan. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20122938. [PMID: 31208091 PMCID: PMC6627441 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20122938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Acrylic bone cements (ABCs) have played a key role in orthopedic surgery mainly in arthroplasties, but their use is increasingly extending to other applications, such as remodeling of cancerous bones, cranioplasties, and vertebroplasties. However, these materials present some limitations related to their inert behavior and the risk of infection after implantation, which leads to a lack of attachment and makes necessary new surgical interventions. In this research, the physicochemical, thermal, mechanical, and biological properties of ABCs modified with chitosan (CS) and graphene oxide (GO) were studied. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman mapping, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), compression resistance, mechanical dynamic analysis (DMA), hydrolytic degradation, cell viability, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity with human osteoblasts (HOb), and antibacterial activity against Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli were used to characterize the ABCs. The results revealed good dispersion of GO nanosheets in the ABCs. GO provided an increase in antibacterial activity, roughness, and flexural behavior, while CS generated porosity, increased the rate of degradation, and decreased compression properties. All ABCs were not cytotoxic and support good cell viability of HOb. The novel formulation of ABCs containing GO and CS simultaneously, increased the thermal stability, flexural modulus, antibacterial behavior, and osteogenic activity, which gives it a high potential for its uses in orthopedic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayra Eliana Valencia Zapata
- Grupo de Materiales Compuestos, Escuela de Ingeniería de Materiales, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 # 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia.
| | - José Herminsul Mina Hernandez
- Grupo de Materiales Compuestos, Escuela de Ingeniería de Materiales, Universidad del Valle, Calle 13 # 100-00, Cali 76001, Colombia.
| | - Carlos David Grande Tovar
- Grupo de Investigación de Fotoquímica y Fotobiología, Universidad del Atlántico, Carrera 30 Número 8-49, Puerto Colombia 081008, Colombia.
| | | | - José Alfredo Diaz Escobar
- Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Institución Universitaria Antonio José Camacho, Avenida 6N # 28N - 102, Cali 76001, Colombia.
| | - Blanca Vázquez-Lasa
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros, ICTP-CSIC, C/Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
- Consorcio Centro de Investigación Biomedica en red, CIBER-BBN, 28029 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Julio San Román
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros, ICTP-CSIC, C/Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
- Consorcio Centro de Investigación Biomedica en red, CIBER-BBN, 28029 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Luis Rojo
- Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros, ICTP-CSIC, C/Juan de la Cierva 3, 28006 Madrid, Spain.
- Consorcio Centro de Investigación Biomedica en red, CIBER-BBN, 28029 Madrid, Spain.
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