The Opposing Functions of Protein Kinases and Phosphatases in Chromosome Bipolar Attachment

A new layer of regulation of chromosomal passenger complex (CPC) translocation in budding yeast

The conserved chromosomal passenger complex (CPC) consists of Ipl1Aurora-B, Sli15INCENP, Bir1Survivin, and Nbl1Borealin, and localizes at the kinetochore/centromere to correct kinetochore attachment errors and to prevent checkpoint silencing. After anaphase entry, the CPC moves from the kinetochore/centromere to the spindle. In budding yeast, CPC subunit Sli15 is phosphorylated by both cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) and Ipl1 kinase. Following anaphase onset, activated Cdc14 phosphatase reverses Sli15 phosphorylation imposed by CDK to promote CPC translocation. Although abolished Sli15 phosphorylation imposed by Ipl1 also causes CPC translocation, the regulation of Ipl1-imposed Sli15 phosphorylation remains unclear. In addition to Sli15, Cdc14 also dephosphorylates Fin1, a regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), to enable kinetochore localization of Fin1-PP1. Here, we present evidence supporting the notion that kinetochore-localized Fin1-PP1 likely reverses Ipl1-imposed Sli15 phosphorylation to promote CPC translocation from the kinetochore/centromere to the spindle. Importantly, premature Fin1 kinetochore localization or phospho-deficient sli15 mutation causes checkpoint defects in response to tensionless attachments, resulting in chromosome missegregation. In addition, our data indicate that reversion of CDK- and Ipl1-imposed Sli15 phosphorylation shows an additive effect on CPC translocation. Together, these results reveal a previously unidentified pathway to regulate CPC translocation, which is important for accurate chromosome segregation.

Functional tug of war between kinases, phosphatases, and the Gcn5 acetyltransferase in chromatin and cell cycle checkpoint controls

Covalent modifications of chromatin regulate genomic structure and accessibility in diverse biological processes such as transcriptional regulation, cell cycle progression, and DNA damage repair. Many histone modifications have been characterized, yet understanding the interactions between these and their combinatorial effects remains an active area of investigation, including dissecting functional interactions between enzymes mediating these modifications. In budding yeast, the histone acetyltransferase Gcn5 interacts with Rts1, a regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Implicated in the interaction is the potential for the dynamic phosphorylation of conserved residues on histone H2B and the Cse4 centromere-specific histone H3 variant. To probe these dynamics, we sought to identify kinases which contribute to the phosphorylated state. In a directed screen beginning with in silico analysis of the 127 members of yeast kinome, we have now identified 16 kinases with genetic interactions with GCN5 and specifically found distinct roles for the Hog1 stress-activated protein kinase. Deletion of HOG1 (hog1Δ) rescues gcn5Δ sensitivity to the microtubule poison nocodazole and the lethality of the gcn5Δ rts1Δ double mutant. The Hog1-Gcn5 interaction requires the conserved H2B-T91 residue, which is phosphorylated in vertebrate species. Furthermore, deletion of HOG1 decreases aneuploidy and apoptotic populations in gcn5Δ cells. Together, these results introduce Hog1 as a kinase that functionally opposes Gcn5 and Rts1 in the context of the spindle assembly checkpoint and suggest further kinases may also influence GCN5's functions.

Yeast Fin1-PP1 dephosphorylates an Ipl1 substrate, Ndc80, to remove Bub1-Bub3 checkpoint proteins from the kinetochore during anaphase

The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) prevents anaphase onset in response to chromosome attachment defects, and SAC silencing is essential for anaphase onset. Following anaphase onset, activated Cdc14 phosphatase dephosphorylates the substrates of cyclin-dependent kinase to facilitate anaphase progression and mitotic exit. In budding yeast, Cdc14 dephosphorylates Fin1, a regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), to enable kinetochore localization of Fin1-PP1. We previously showed that kinetochore-localized Fin1-PP1 promotes the removal of the SAC protein Bub1 from the kinetochore during anaphase. We report here that Fin1-PP1 also promotes kinetochore removal of Bub3, the Bub1 partner, but has no effect on another SAC protein Mad1. Moreover, the kinetochore localization of Bub1-Bub3 during anaphase requires Aurora B/Ipl1 kinase activity. We further showed that Fin1-PP1 facilitates the dephosphorylation of kinetochore protein Ndc80, a known Ipl1 substrate. This dephosphorylation reduces kinetochore association of Bub1-Bub3 during anaphase. In addition, we found that untimely Ndc80 dephosphorylation causes viability loss in response to tensionless chromosome attachments. These results suggest that timely localization of Fin1-PP1 to the kinetochore controls the functional window of SAC and is therefore critical for faithful chromosome segregation.

N-Terminus Does Not Govern Protein Turnover of Schizosaccharomyces pombe CENP-A

Centromere integrity underlies an essential framework for precise chromosome segregation and epigenetic inheritance. Although centromeric DNA sequences vary among different organisms, all eukaryotic centromeres comprise a centromere-specific histone H3 variant, centromeric protein A (CENP-A), on which other centromeric proteins assemble into the kinetochore complex. This complex connects chromosomes to mitotic spindle microtubules to ensure accurate partitioning of the genome into daughter cells. Overexpression of CENP-A is associated with many cancers and is correlated with its mistargeting, forming extra-centromeric kinetochore structures. The mislocalization of CENP-A can be counteracted by proteolysis. The amino (N)-terminal domain (NTD) of CENP-A has been implicated in this regulation and shown to be dependent on the proline residues within this domain in Saccharomyces cerevisiae CENP-A, Cse4. We recently identified a proline-rich GRANT motif in the NTD of Schizosaccharomyces pombe CENP-A (SpCENP-A) that regulates the centromeric targeting of CENP-A via binding to the CENP-A chaperone Sim3. Here, we investigated whether the NTD is required to confer SpCENP-A turnover (i.e., counter stability) using various truncation mutants of SpCENP-A. We show that sequential truncation of the NTD did not improve the stability of the protein, indicating that the NTD of SpCENP-A does not drive turnover of the protein. Instead, we reproduced previous observations that heterochromatin integrity is important for SpCENP-A stability, and showed that this occurs in an NTD-independent manner. Cells bearing the null mutant of the histone H3 lysine 9 methyltransferase Clr4 (Δclr4), which have compromised constitutive heterochromatin integrity, showed reductions in the proportion of SpCENP-A in the chromatin-containing insoluble fraction of the cell extract, suggesting that heterochromatin may promote SpCENP-A chromatin incorporation. Thus, a disruption in heterochromatin may result in the delocalization of SpCENP-A from chromatin, thus exposing it to protein turnover. Taken together, we show that the NTD is not required to confer SpCENP-A protein turnover.

RZZ-SPINDLY-DYNEIN: you got to keep 'em separated

To maintain genome stability, chromosomes must be equally distributed among daughter cells at the end of mitosis. The accuracy of chromosome segregation requires sister-kinetochores to stably attach to microtubules emanating from opposite spindle poles. However, initial kinetochore-microtubule interactions are able to turnover so that defective attachment configurations that typically arise during early mitosis may be corrected. Growing evidence supports a role for the RZZ complex in preventing the stabilization of erroneous kinetochore-microtubule attachments. This inhibitory function of RZZ toward end-on attachments is relieved by DYNEIN-mediated transport of the complex as chromosomes congress and appropriate interactions with microtubules are established. However, it remains unclear how DYNEIN is antagonized to prevent premature RZZ removal. We recently described a new mechanism that sheds new light on this matter. We found that POLO kinase phosphorylates the DYNEIN adaptor SPINDLY to promote the uncoupling between RZZ and DYNEIN. Elevated POLO activity during prometaphase ensures that RZZ is retained at kinetochores to allow the dynamic turnover of kinetochore-microtubule interactions and prevent the stabilization of erroneous attachments. Here, we discuss additional interpretations to explain a model for POLO-dependent regulation of the RZZ-SPINDLY-DYNEIN module during mitosis.

CDK Regulation of Meiosis: Lessons from S. cerevisiae and S. pombe

Meiotic progression requires precise orchestration, such that one round of DNA replication is followed by two meiotic divisions. The order and timing of meiotic events is controlled through the modulation of the phosphorylation state of proteins. Key components of this phospho-regulatory system include cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) and its cyclin regulatory subunits. Over the past two decades, studies in budding and fission yeast have greatly informed our understanding of the role of CDK in meiotic regulation. In this review, we provide an overview of how CDK controls meiotic events in both budding and fission yeast. We discuss mechanisms of CDK regulation through post-translational modifications and changes in the levels of cyclins. Finally, we highlight the similarities and differences in CDK regulation between the two yeast species. Since CDK and many meiotic regulators are highly conserved, the findings in budding and fission yeasts have revealed conserved mechanisms of meiotic regulation among eukaryotes.

PP2A Functions during Mitosis and Cytokinesis in Yeasts

Protein phosphorylation is a common mechanism for the regulation of cell cycle progression. The opposing functions of cell cycle kinases and phosphatases are crucial for accurate chromosome segregation and exit from mitosis. Protein phosphatases 2A are heterotrimeric complexes that play essential roles in cell growth, proliferation, and regulation of the cell cycle. Here, we review the function of the protein phosphatase 2A family as the counteracting force for the mitotic kinases. We focus on recent findings in the regulation of mitotic exit and cytokinesis by PP2A phosphatases in S. cerevisiae and other fungal species.