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Wang K, Pan Q, Li X, Zhao Z, Zan X, Wang C. Dimerization and liquid-liquid phase separation of the nonrepetitive domains of pyriform spidroin 1 controls the pyriform silk formation. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 277:134280. [PMID: 39084421 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.134280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2024] [Revised: 07/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/27/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
Spiders spin high performance silks with diverse mechanical properties for specific biological functions. Of these spider silk types, pyriform silk stands out as a unique combination of wet glue and dry fibers. Investigation of self-assembly process of spider silk proteins is necessary for elucidating the silk formation mechanism. However, the functions of nonrepetitive domains in the silk formation of pyriform spidroins from liquid proteins to solid fibers are still unclear, making it difficult to achieve efficient biomimetic preparations of pyriform silk with good mechanical properties. In this study, we investigate the roles of the N-linker repeat (NLR) and both terminal domains of pyriform spidroin 1 (PySp1) in the silk formation. We demonstrate for the first time that the PySp1 NLR alone is sufficient to self-assemble into high strength fibers. Moreover, we showed that the ability to promote the pyriform silk formation by the addition of the NLR. We also found that the pH-sensitive dimerization property for N-terminal domain and the liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS) coupled with acidification triggers the self-assembly mediated by the C-terminal domain. Overall, our results provide new insight into the role of nonrepetitive domains in the pyriform silk formation mechanism and the basis for producing new protein-based materials derived from spider pyriform silk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kangkang Wang
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325000, China; Taizhou Hospital of Zhejiang Province affiliated to Wenzhou Medical University, Taizhou, Zhejiang 317099, China
| | - Qixian Pan
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325000, China
| | - Xue Li
- Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200050, China
| | - Zhenzhou Zhao
- Department of Radiation and Medical Oncology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325000, China
| | - Xingjie Zan
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325000, China.
| | - Cheng Wang
- Taizhou Hospital of Zhejiang Province affiliated to Wenzhou Medical University, Taizhou, Zhejiang 317099, China.
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2
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Peng X, Liu Z, Gao J, Zhang Y, Wang H, Li C, Lv X, Gao Y, Deng H, Zhao B, Gao T, Li H. Influence of Spider Silk Protein Structure on Mechanical and Biological Properties for Energetic Material Detection. Molecules 2024; 29:1025. [PMID: 38474537 PMCID: PMC10934110 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29051025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Spider silk protein, renowned for its excellent mechanical properties, biodegradability, chemical stability, and low immune and inflammatory response activation, consists of a core domain with a repeat sequence and non-repeating sequences at the N-terminal and C-terminal. In this review, we focus on the relationship between the silk structure and its mechanical properties, exploring the potential applications of spider silk materials in the detection of energetic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinying Peng
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Zhiyong Liu
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Junhong Gao
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Yuhao Zhang
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Hong Wang
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Cunzhi Li
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Xiaoqiang Lv
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Yongchao Gao
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Hui Deng
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Bin Zhao
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Ting Gao
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
| | - Huan Li
- Toxicology Research Center, Institute for Hygiene of Ordnance Industry, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China (Z.L.)
- Xi’an Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Biological Effects, NO. 12 Zhangbadong Road, Yanta District, Xi’an 710065, China
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3
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Šede M, Fridmanis J, Otikovs M, Johansson J, Rising A, Kronqvist N, Jaudzems K. Solution Structure of Tubuliform Spidroin N-Terminal Domain and Implications for pH Dependent Dimerization. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:936887. [PMID: 35775078 PMCID: PMC9237525 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.936887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The spidroin N-terminal domain (NT) is responsible for high solubility and pH-dependent assembly of spider silk proteins during storage and fiber formation, respectively. It forms a monomeric five-helix bundle at neutral pH and dimerizes at lowered pH, thereby firmly interconnecting the spidroins. Mechanistic studies with the NTs from major ampullate, minor ampullate, and flagelliform spidroins (MaSp, MiSp, and FlSp) have shown that the pH dependency is conserved between different silk types, although the residues that mediate this process can differ. Here we study the tubuliform spidroin (TuSp) NT from Argiope argentata, which lacks several well conserved residues involved in the dimerization of other NTs. We solve its structure at low pH revealing an antiparallel dimer of two five-α-helix bundles, which contrasts with a previously determined Nephila antipodiana TuSp NT monomer structure. Further, we study a set of mutants and find that the residues participating in the protonation events during dimerization are different from MaSp and MiSp NT. Charge reversal of one of these residues (R117 in TuSp) results in significantly altered electrostatic interactions between monomer subunits. Altogether, the structure and mutant studies suggest that TuSp NT monomers assemble by elimination of intramolecular repulsive charge interactions, which could lead to slight tilting of α-helices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megija Šede
- Department of Physical Organic Chemistry, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia
| | - Jēkabs Fridmanis
- Department of Physical Organic Chemistry, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia
| | - Martins Otikovs
- Department of Physical Organic Chemistry, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia
| | - Jan Johansson
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Neo, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Anna Rising
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Neo, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Nina Kronqvist
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Neo, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Kristaps Jaudzems
- Department of Physical Organic Chemistry, Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Riga, Latvia
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
- *Correspondence: Kristaps Jaudzems,
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4
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Li X, Fan JS, Shi M, Lai CC, Li J, Meng Q, Yang D. C-Terminal Domains of Spider Silk Proteins Having Divergent Structures but Conserved Functional Roles. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:1643-1651. [PMID: 35312302 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c01513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Spider silk is self-assembled from silk proteins or spidroins. C-terminal domains (CTDs) of various types of spidroins are relatively conserved in amino acid sequences and are suggested to adopt similar structures and perform similar functional roles in spidroin storage and silk formation. Here, we solved the structure of the CTD from a capture-spiral silk protein (CTDFl) and characterized its stability and fibril formation in the presence and absence of a reducing agent at different pH values. CTDFl adopts a dimeric structure with 8 helices, but the CTDs of other types of spidroins exist in a domain-swapped dimeric structure with 10 helices. Despite the structural differences, CTDFl is pH-responsive in stability and fibril formation, similar to the CTDs from minor and major ampullate spidroins. Thus, the functional role of CTDs in silk fiber formation seems conserved. Comparing wild-type CTDFl and its mutants, we found that the pH-responsive behavior results from the protonation of H76, which is conserved from different spider species. In addition, the fibril formation rate of CTDFl correlates with its instability, suggesting that structural changes are involved in fibril formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543.,College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, P. R. China
| | - Jing-Song Fan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
| | - Mengqi Shi
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
| | - Chong Cheong Lai
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
| | - Jiaxin Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
| | - Qing Meng
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, P. R. China
| | - Daiwen Yang
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543
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5
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Ramezaniaghdam M, Nahdi ND, Reski R. Recombinant Spider Silk: Promises and Bottlenecks. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:835637. [PMID: 35350182 PMCID: PMC8957953 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.835637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Spider silk threads have exceptional mechanical properties such as toughness, elasticity and low density, which reach maximum values compared to other fibre materials. They are superior even compared to Kevlar and steel. These extraordinary properties stem from long length and specific protein structures. Spider silk proteins can consist of more than 20,000 amino acids. Polypeptide stretches account for more than 90% of the whole protein, and these domains can be repeated more than a hundred times. Each repeat unit has a specific function resulting in the final properties of the silk. These properties make them attractive for innovative material development for medical or technical products as well as cosmetics. However, with livestock breeding of spiders it is not possible to reach high volumes of silk due to the cannibalistic behaviour of these animals. In order to obtain spider silk proteins (spidroins) on a large scale, recombinant production is attempted in various expression systems such as plants, bacteria, yeasts, insects, silkworms, mammalian cells and animals. For viable large-scale production, cost-effective and efficient production systems are needed. This review describes the different types of spider silk, their proteins and structures and discusses the production of these difficult-to-express proteins in different host organisms with an emphasis on plant systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Ramezaniaghdam
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence livMatS at FIT – Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Nadia D. Nahdi
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ralf Reski
- Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence livMatS at FIT – Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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6
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Wen R, Wang K, Yang D, Yu T, Zan X, Meng Q. The novel aciniform silk protein (AcSp2-v2) reveals the unique repetitive domain with high acid and thermal stability and self-assembly capability. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 202:91-101. [PMID: 34973994 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.12.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Orb-weaving spiders spin a mechanically and functionally diverse range of silk fibers, each composed of one or more specific silk proteins. Of all silk types, wrapping silk combines high strength and extensibility and is made of multiple aciniform silk proteins (AcSp) that can be grouped into two AcSp types (AcSp1 and AcSp2) according to their distinct repetitive regions. Here, we present a novel and complete AcSp gene from orb weaving spider Araneus ventricosus. Phylogenetic analysis of the terminal regions of spidroins reveals that the new silk protein and the published A. ventricosus AcSp2 together form a subclade, indicating that this protein is a member of AcSp2 subclass and therefore named AcSp2 variant 2 (AcSp2-v2). The repetitive region of A. ventricosus AcSp2-v2 contains 24 cysteine residues, which is the first time that cysteine has been found in repetitive regions of spidroins. Moreover, the discovery of the ability of AcSp2-v2 repetitive domain to self-assemble into silk fibers expands the repertoire of known self-assembling sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Wen
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325000, China; School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province 325035, China; Institute of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China
| | - Kangkang Wang
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province 325035, China
| | - Dong Yang
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province 325035, China
| | - Tiantian Yu
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province 325035, China
| | - Xingjie Zan
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325000, China; School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Eye Hospital, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang Province 325035, China
| | - Qing Meng
- Institute of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Donghua University, Shanghai 201620, China.
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7
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Li X, Qi X, Cai YM, Sun Y, Wen R, Zhang R, Johansson J, Meng Q, Chen G. Customized Flagelliform Spidroins Form Spider Silk-like Fibers at pH 8.0 with Outstanding Tensile Strength. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021; 8:119-127. [PMID: 34908395 PMCID: PMC8753598 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c01354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Spider flagelliform silk shows the best extensibility among various types of silk, but its biomimetic preparation has not been much studied. Herein, five customized flagelliform spidroins (FlSps: S and NTDFl-Sn-CTDFl, n = 1-4), in which the repetitive region (S) and N-/C- terminal domains (NTDFl and CTDFl) are from the same spidroin and spider species, were produced recombinantly. The recombinant spidroins with terminal domains were able to form silk-like fibers with diameters of ∼5 μm by manual pulling at pH 8.0, where the secondary structure transformation occurred. The silk-like fibers from NTDFl-S4-CTDFl showed the highest tensile strength (∼250 MPa), while those ones with 1-3 S broke at a similar stress (∼180 MPa), suggesting that increasing the amounts of the repetitive region can improve the tensile strength, but a certain threshold might need to be reached. This study shows successful preparation of flagelliform silk-like fibers with good mechanical properties, providing general insights into efficient biomimetic preparations of spider silks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Li
- Department of Medical Ultrasound, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Ultrasound Research and Education Institute, Tongji University Cancer Center, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Ultrasound Diagnosis and Treatment, Tongji University School of Medicine, 200092 Shanghai, China.,Institute of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Donghua University, 201620 Shanghai, China
| | - Xingmei Qi
- The Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Institutes of Biology and Medical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yu-Ming Cai
- Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ Southampton, Hampshire, U.K
| | - Yuan Sun
- Institute of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Donghua University, 201620 Shanghai, China
| | - Rui Wen
- Institute of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Donghua University, 201620 Shanghai, China
| | - Rui Zhang
- Department of Pulmonary Circulation, Shanghai Pulmonary Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Jan Johansson
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, 14157 Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Qing Meng
- Institute of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Donghua University, 201620 Shanghai, China
| | - Gefei Chen
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, 14157 Huddinge, Sweden
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8
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Wang J, Yuan W, Qin R, Fan T, Fan JS, Huang W, Yang D, Lin Z. Self-assembly of tubuliform spidroins driven by hydrophobic interactions among terminal domains. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 166:1141-1148. [PMID: 33157141 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.10.269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Spider silk has remarkable physical and biocompatible properties. Investigation of structure-function relationship and self-assembly process of spidroins is necessary for uncovering the mechanism of silk fiber formation. Nevertheless, how the terminal domains initiate self-assembly of soluble tubuliform spidroins to form solid eggcase silk is still not fully understood. Here we investigate the roles of both terminal domains of tubuliform spidroin 1 (TuSp1) in the silk fiber formation. We found that interactions among the terminal domains drive rapid TuSp1 self-assembly and fiber formation, which is insensitive to pH changes from 6.0 to 7.0. These interactions also contribute to the spidroin chain alignment in fiber formation upon shear-force exposure. Structural analysis and site-directed mutagenesis identified eight critical surface-exposed residues involved in hydrophobic interactions among terminal domains. Spidroins with single-point mutations of these residues fail to form intermediate micelle-like structures. The structural docking model indicates that multiple terminal domains of TuSp1 may interact with each other based on hydrophobic interactions and surface complementarity, which may lead to forming the surface of the micelle-like structure. Our results provide new insights into the structural mechanism of eggcase silk formation and the basis for designing and producing novel biomaterials derived from spider eggcase silk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingxia Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Function and Application of Biological Macromolecular Structures, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Wensu Yuan
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Function and Application of Biological Macromolecular Structures, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Ruiqi Qin
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Function and Application of Biological Macromolecular Structures, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Tiantian Fan
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Function and Application of Biological Macromolecular Structures, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China
| | - Jing-Song Fan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
| | - Weidong Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, 750004, PR China
| | - Daiwen Yang
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, 117543, Singapore
| | - Zhi Lin
- School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China; Tianjin Key Laboratory of Function and Application of Biological Macromolecular Structures, School of Life Sciences, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, PR China.
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