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Nisler J, Kučerová Z, Koprna R, Sobotka R, Slivková J, Rossall S, Špundová M, Husičková A, Pilný J, Tarkowská D, Novák O, Škrabišová M, Strnad M. Urea derivative MTU improves stress tolerance and yield in wheat by promoting cyclic electron flow around PSI. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1131326. [PMID: 36959950 PMCID: PMC10028069 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1131326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Increasing crop productivity under optimal conditions and mitigating yield losses under stressful conditions is a major challenge in contemporary agriculture. We have recently identified an effective anti-senescence compound (MTU, [1-(2-methoxyethyl)-3-(1,2,3-thiadiazol-5yl)urea]) in in vitro studies. Here, we show that MTU delayed both age- and stress-induced senescence of wheat plants (Triticum aestivum L.) by enhancing the abundance of PSI supercomplex with LHCa antennae (PSI-LHCa) and promoting the cyclic electron flow (CEF) around PSI. We suppose that this rarely-observed phenomenon blocks the disintegration of photosynthetic apparatus and maintains its activity as was reflected by the faster growth rate of wheat in optimal conditions and under drought and heat stress. Our multiyear field trial analysis further shows that the treatment with 0.4 g ha-1 of MTU enhanced average grain yields of field-grown wheat and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) by 5-8%. Interestingly, the analysis of gene expression and hormone profiling confirms that MTU acts without the involvement of cytokinins or other phytohormones. Moreover, MTU appears to be the only chemical reported to date to affect PSI stability and activity. Our results indicate a central role of PSI and CEF in the onset of senescence with implications in yield management at least for cereal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaroslav Nisler
- Isotope Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Botany, Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czechia
| | - Zuzana Kučerová
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Radoslav Koprna
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Roman Sobotka
- Centre Algatech, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Třeboň, Czechia
| | - Jana Slivková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Stephen Rossall
- School of Biosciences, Nottingham University, Loughborough, United Kingdom
| | - Martina Špundová
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Alexandra Husičková
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Jan Pilný
- Centre Algatech, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Třeboň, Czechia
| | - Danuše Tarkowská
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences & Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences & Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Mária Škrabišová
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences & Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
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Hudeček M, Nožková V, Plíhalová L, Plíhal O. Plant hormone cytokinin at the crossroads of stress priming and control of photosynthesis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 13:1103088. [PMID: 36743569 PMCID: PMC9889983 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1103088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
To cope with biotic and abiotic stress conditions, land plants have evolved several levels of protection, including delicate defense mechanisms to respond to changes in the environment. The benefits of inducible defense responses can be further augmented by defense priming, which allows plants to respond to a mild stimulus faster and more robustly than plants in the naïve (non-primed) state. Priming provides a low-cost protection of agriculturally important plants in a relatively safe and effective manner. Many different organic and inorganic compounds have been successfully tested to induce resistance in plants. Among the plethora of commonly used physicochemical techniques, priming by plant growth regulators (phytohormones and their derivatives) appears to be a viable approach with a wide range of applications. While several classes of plant hormones have been exploited in agriculture with promising results, much less attention has been paid to cytokinin, a major plant hormone involved in many biological processes including the regulation of photosynthesis. Cytokinins have been long known to be involved in the regulation of chlorophyll metabolism, among other functions, and are responsible for delaying the onset of senescence. A comprehensive overview of the possible mechanisms of the cytokinin-primed defense or stress-related responses, especially those related to photosynthesis, should provide better insight into some of the less understood aspects of this important group of plant growth regulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Hudeček
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science of Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Vladimíra Nožková
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Lucie Plíhalová
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czechia
| | - Ondřej Plíhal
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Faculty of Science of Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Olomouc, Czechia
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Stoynova-Bakalova E, Bakalov DV, Baskin TI. Ethylene represses the promoting influence of cytokinin on cell division and expansion of cotyledons in etiolated Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14315. [PMID: 36340204 PMCID: PMC9632460 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The plant hormones ethylene and cytokinin influence many processes; sometimes they act cooperatively, other times antagonistically. To study their antagonistic interaction, we used the cotyledons of etiolated, intact seedlings of Arabidopsis thaliana. We focused on cell division and expansion, because both processes are quantified readily in paradermal sections. Here, we show that exogenous cytokinins modestly stimulate cell division and expansion in the cotyledon, with a phenyl-urea class compound exerting a larger effect than benzyl-adenine. Similarly, both processes were stimulated modestly when ethylene response was inhibited, either chemically with silver nitrate or genetically with the eti5 ethylene-insensitive mutant. However, combining cytokinin treatment with ethylene insensitivity was synergistic, strongly stimulating both cell division and expansion. Evidently, ethylene represses the growth promoting influence of cytokinin, whether endogenous or applied. We suggest that the intact etiolated cotyledon offers a useful system to characterize how ethylene antagonizes cytokinin responsiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dimitar V. Bakalov
- Department of Pathophysiology, Medical University of Sofia, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Tobias I. Baskin
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, MA, United States of America
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Lei L, Wu D, Cui C, Gao X, Yao Y, Dong J, Xu L, Yang M. Transcriptome Analysis of Early Senescence in the Post-Anthesis Flag Leaf of Wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.). PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:2593. [PMID: 36235459 PMCID: PMC9572001 DOI: 10.3390/plants11192593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Flag leaf senescence is an important determinant of wheat yield, as leaf senescence occurs in a coordinated manner during grain filling. However, the biological process of early senescence of flag leaves post-anthesis is not clear. In this study, early senescence in wheat was investigated using a high-throughput RNA sequencing technique. A total of 4887 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified, and any showing drastic expression changes were then linked to particular biological processes. A hierarchical cluster analysis implied potential relationships between NAC genes and post-anthesis senescence in the flag leaf. In addition, a large set of genes associated with the synthesis; transport; and signaling of multiple phytohormones (JA, ABA, IAA, ET, SA, BR, and CTK) were expressed differentially, and many DEGs related to ABA and IAA were identified. Our results provide insight into the molecular processes taking place during the early senescence of flag leaves, which may provide useful information in improving wheat yield in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Lei
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712000, China
- Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang 464000, China
| | - Dan Wu
- Chongqing Academy of Chinese Meteria Medica, Chongqing 400000, China
| | - Chao Cui
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712000, China
| | - Xiang Gao
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712000, China
- Wheat Engineering Research Center of Shaanxi Province, Xianyang 712000, China
| | - Yanjie Yao
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712000, China
| | - Jian Dong
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712000, China
- Wheat Engineering Research Center of Shaanxi Province, Xianyang 712000, China
| | - Liangsheng Xu
- College of Plant Protection, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712000, China
| | - Mingming Yang
- College of Agronomy, Northwest A&F University, Xianyang 712000, China
- Wheat Engineering Research Center of Shaanxi Province, Xianyang 712000, China
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Chen W, Huang B. Cytokinin or ethylene regulation of heat-induced leaf senescence involving transcriptional modulation of WRKY in perennial ryegrass. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2022; 174:e13766. [PMID: 36053893 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Heat stress is a major abiotic stress for temperate plant species with characteristic symptoms of premature leaf senescence. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the physiological effects of cytokinins (CK) and an ethylene inhibitor, aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) on heat-induced leaf senescence in the temperate perennial grass species, perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), and to investigate whether WRKY transcription factors (TFs) could be associated with CK- or ethylene-mediated regulation of heat-induced leaf senescence by exogenously applying CK or AVG to perennial ryegrass. Perennial ryegrass plants foliar-sprayed with 6-benzylaminopurine (6-BA), and AVG exhibited prolonged stay-green phenotypes and a lesser degree of leaf senescence under heat stress (35/30°C), as shown by a decline in electrolyte leakage, malondialdehyde content, hydrogen peroxide, and superoxide content, and increased chlorophyll (Chl) content along with reduced activities of Chl-degrading enzymes (pheophytinase and chlorophyllase) and increased activity of Chl-synthesizing enzyme (porphobilinogen deaminase) due to 6-BA or AVG application. The suppression of heat-induced leaf senescence by 6-BA or AVG treatment corresponded with the upregulation of LpWRKY69 and LpWRKY70. The LpWRKY69 and LpWRKY70 promoters were predicted to share conserved cis-elements potentially recognized by TFs in the CK or ethylene pathways. These results indicate that LpWRKY69 and LpWRKY70 may negatively regulate heat-induced leaf senescence through CK or ethylene pathways, conferring heat tolerance in perennial ryegrass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Chen
- Department of Plant Biology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | - Bingru Huang
- Department of Plant Biology, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
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Klos D, Dušek M, Samol'ová E, Zatloukal M, Nožková V, Nesnas N, Plačková L, Koprna R, Spíšek Z, Vylíčilová H, Plíhal O, Doležal K, Voller J, Kadlecová A, Strnad M, Plíhalová L. New Water-Soluble Cytokinin Derivatives and Their Beneficial Impact on Barley Yield and Photosynthesis. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:7288-7301. [PMID: 35658447 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c00981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Solubility of growth regulators is essential for their use in agriculture. Four new cytokinin salts─6-benzylaminopurine mesylate (1), 6-(2-hydroxybenzylamino)purine mesylate (2), 6-(3-hydroxybenzylamino)purine mesylate (3), and 6-(3-methoxybenzylamino)purine mesylate (4)─were synthesized, and their crystal structures were determined to clarify structural influence on water solubility. The mesylates were several orders of magnitude more water-soluble than the parent CKs. The new salts significantly reduced chlorophyll degradation and impairment of photosystem II functionality in barley leaf segments undergoing artificial senescence and had pronounced effects on the leaves' endogenous CK pools, maintaining high concentrations of functional metabolites for several days, unlike canonical CKs. A foliar treatment with 1 and 3 increased the harvest yield of spring barley by up to 8% when compared to treatment with the parent CKs while also increasing the number of productive tillers. This effect was attributed to the higher bioavailability of the mesylate salts and the avoidance of dimethyl sulfoxide exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dardan Klos
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Dušek
- Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Na Slovance 2, CZ-182 21 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Erika Samol'ová
- Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Na Slovance 2, CZ-182 21 Praha, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Zatloukal
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimíra Nožková
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Nasri Nesnas
- Department of Biomedical and Chemical Engineering and Sciences, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Florida 32901, United States
| | - Lenka Plačková
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Radoslav Koprna
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Zdeněk Spíšek
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Hana Vylíčilová
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Plíhal
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Doležal
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Voller
- Department of Experimental Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Palacký University, Hněvotínská 5, CZ-77515 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Alena Kadlecová
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
- Institute of Molecular and Translational Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Palacký University, Hněvotínská 5, CZ-77515 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Plíhalová
- Department of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
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Wang F, Sun Z, Zhu M, Zhang Q, Sun Y, Sun W, Wu C, Li T, Zhao Y, Ma C, Zhang H, Zhao Y, Wang Z. Dissecting the Molecular Regulation of Natural Variation in Growth and Senescence of Two Eutrema salsugineum Ecotypes. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23116124. [PMID: 35682805 PMCID: PMC9181637 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23116124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Revised: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Salt cress (Eutrema salsugineum, aka Thellungiella salsuginea) is an extremophile and a close relative of Arabidopsis thaliana. To understand the mechanism of selection of complex traits under natural variation, we analyzed the physiological and proteomic differences between Shandong (SD) and Xinjiang (XJ) ecotypes. The SD ecotype has dark green leaves, short and flat leaves, and more conspicuous taproots, and the XJ ecotype had greater biomass and showed clear signs of senescence or leaf shedding with age. After 2-DE separation and ESI-MS/MS identification, between 25 and 28 differentially expressed protein spots were identified in shoots and roots, respectively. The proteins identified in shoots are mainly involved in cellular metabolic processes, stress responses, responses to abiotic stimuli, and aging responses, while those identified in roots are mainly involved in small-molecule metabolic processes, oxidation-reduction processes, and responses to abiotic stimuli. Our data revealed the evolutionary differences at the protein level between these two ecotypes. Namely, in the evolution of salt tolerance, the SD ecotype highly expressed some stress-related proteins to structurally adapt to the high salt environment in the Yellow River Delta, whereas the XJ ecotype utilizes the specialized energy metabolism to support this evolution of the short-lived xerophytes in the Xinjiang region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanhua Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Zhibin Sun
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
- Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Min Zhu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Qikun Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Yufei Sun
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Wei Sun
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Chunxia Wu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Tongtong Li
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Yiwu Zhao
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Changle Ma
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Hui Zhang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
| | - Yanxiu Zhao
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
- Correspondence: (Y.Z.); (Z.W.)
| | - Zenglan Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Stress, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China; (F.W.); (Z.S.); (M.Z.); (Q.Z.); (Y.S.); (W.S.); (C.W.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (C.M.); (H.Z.)
- Correspondence: (Y.Z.); (Z.W.)
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Diverse Effect of Two Cytokinins, Kinetin and Benzyladenine, on Plant Development, Biotic Stress Tolerance, and Gene Expression. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11121404. [PMID: 34947935 PMCID: PMC8706806 DOI: 10.3390/life11121404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The plant hormones cytokinins affect a various array of plant growth and development processes as well as responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. In this study, the opposite effect of two different cytokinins kinetin (N6-furfuryladenine) and benzyladenine (BA) on development and on the tolerance of Arabidopsis and tobacco plants to virus, bacteria, and fungi infection was reported. Treatments of Arabidopsis and tobacco seedlings with saturated solutions of BA inhibited plant progress, while treatments with saturated water solution of kinetin promoted plant development. Furthermore, BA pre-treatments strongly reduced the number of TMV (Tobacco mosaic virus) lesions on tobacco and the tissue damage caused by the incompatible Pseudomonas bacteria on Arabidopsis and tobacco leaves. Similarly, BA pre-treatment significantly reduced the necrotic disease symptoms of Botrytis cinerea infection. Kinetin pre-treatments had a much weaker or no protective effect on the damage caused by the above pathogens. Accordingly, Arabidopsis gene expression profiles after treatments also showed that the two cytokinins have different effects on several plant processes. The gene expression results supported the more robust effect of BA, which up and downregulated more than 2000 genes, while only 436 genes were influenced by kinetin treatment. It is noteworthy that BA and kinetin treatment changed gene expressions in the same direction only in a relatively few cases (73 upregulated and 70 downregulated genes), and even 28 genes were regulated into the opposite directions by BA and kinetin. Both treatments had a strong effect on auxin and gibberellin-related genes, but only BA had a significant effect on cytokinin-induced processes. While kinetin exclusively activated the flavonoid synthesis genes, BA affected more significantly protein synthesis, photosynthesis, and plant defence-related genes. In conclusion, BA solution had sometimes the opposite and generally a much stronger effect than kinetin solution not only on the development and on biotic stress tolerance of tobacco and Arabidopsis plants but also on the gene expressions. The stronger protective effect of BA to necrotic stresses is probably due to its stronger senescence inhibitory effect on plant tissues, as supported by the stronger chlorophyll retardation of the BA-treated leaves.
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