AHR Signaling Interacting with Nutritional Factors Regulating the Expression of Markers in Vascular Inflammation and Atherogenesis

Advances in the study of S100A9 in cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a group of diseases that primarily affect the heart or blood vessels, with high disability and mortality rates, posing a serious threat to human health. The causative factors, pathogenesis, and characteristics of common CVD differ, but they all involve common pathological processes such as inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis. S100A9 belongs to the S100 family of calcium-binding proteins, which are mainly secreted by myeloid cells and bind to the Toll-like receptor 4 and receptor for advanced glycation end products and is involved in regulating pathological processes such as inflammatory response, fibrosis, vascular calcification, and endothelial barrier function in CVD. The latest research has found that S100A9 is a key biomarker for diagnosing and predicting various CVD. Therefore, this article reviews the latest research progress on the diagnostic and predictive, and therapeutic value of S100A9 in inflammatory-related CVD such as atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, and arterial aneurysm and summarizes its molecular mechanisms in the progression of CVD, aiming to explore new predictive methods and to identify potential intervention targets for CVD in clinical practice.

Mechanisms underlying aryl hydrocarbon receptor-driven divergent macrophage function

Macrophages play an essential role in the innate immune system by differentiating into functionally diverse subsets in order to fight infection, repair damaged tissues, and regulate inappropriate immune responses. This functional diversity stems from their ability to adapt and respond to signals in the environment, which is in part mediated through aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR)-signaling. AHR, an environmental sensor, can be activated by various ligands, ranging from environmental contaminants to microbially derived tryptophan metabolites. This review discusses what is currently known about how AHR-signaling influences macrophage differentiation, polarization, and function. By discussing studies that are both consistent and divergent, our goal is to highlight the need for future research on the mechanisms by which AHR acts as an immunological switch in macrophages. Ultimately, understanding the contexts in which AHR-signaling promotes and/or inhibits differentiation, proinflammatory functions, and immunoregulatory functions, will help uncover functional predictions of immunotoxicity following exposure to environmental chemicals as well as better design AHR-targeted immunotherapies.

Kynurenic Acid/AhR Signaling at the Junction of Inflammation and Cardiovascular Diseases

Persistent systemic chronic inflammatory conditions are linked with many pathologies, including cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), a leading cause of death across the globe. Among various risk factors, one of the new possible contributors to CVDs is the metabolism of essential amino acid tryptophan. Proinflammatory signals promote tryptophan metabolism via the kynurenine (KYN) pathway (KP), thereby resulting in the biosynthesis of several immunomodulatory metabolites whose biological effects are associated with the development of symptoms and progression of various inflammatory diseases. Some participants in the KP are agonists of aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a central player in a signaling pathway that, along with a regulatory influence on the metabolism of environmental xenobiotics, performs a key immunomodulatory function by triggering various cellular mechanisms with the participation of endogenous ligands to alleviate inflammation. An AhR ligand with moderate affinity is the central metabolite of the KP: KYN; one of the subsequent metabolites of KYN-kynurenic acid (KYNA)-is a more potent ligand of AhR. Understanding the role of AhR pathway-related metabolites of the KP that regulate inflammatory factors in cells of the cardiovascular system is interesting and important for achieving effective treatment of CVDs. The purpose of this review was to summarize the results of studies about the participation of the KP metabolite-KYNA-and of the AhR signaling pathway in the regulation of inflammation in pathological conditions of the heart and blood vessels and about the possible interaction of KYNA with AhR signaling in some CVDs.

Menopause Hot Flashes and Molecular Mechanisms Modulated by Food-Derived Nutrients

The causes of vasomotor symptoms, including hot flashes, are not fully understood, may be related to molecular factors, and have a polygenic architecture. Nutrients and bioactive molecules supplied to the body with food are metabolized using various enzymatic pathways. They can induce molecular cell signaling pathways and, consequently, activate effector proteins that modulate processes related to hot flashes in menopausal women. In this review, we analyzed the literature data from the last 5 years, especially regarding genome-wide association study (GWAS) analysis, and selected molecular factors and cell signaling pathways that may potentially be related to hot flashes in women. These are the kisspeptin-GnRH pathway, adipocyte-derived hormones, aryl hydrocarbon receptor signaling, catechol estrogens and estrogen sulfotransferase, inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers, and glucose availability. Then, single compounds or groups of food ingredients were selected that, according to experimental data, influence the course of the discussed molecular pathways and thus can be considered as potential natural therapeutic agents to effectively reduce the troublesome symptoms of menopause in women.

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor: A bridge linking immuno-inflammation and metabolism in atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide, and atherosclerosis is a major contributor to this etiology. The ligand-activated transcription factor, known as the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), plays an essential role in the interactions between genes and the environment. In a number of human diseases, including atherosclerosis, the AhR signaling pathway has recently been shown to be aberrantly expressed and activated. It's reported that AhR can regulate the immuno-inflammatory response and metabolism pathways in atherosclerosis, potentially serving as a bridge that links these processes. In this review, we highlight the involvement of AhR in atherosclerosis. From the literature, we conclude that AhR is a potential target for controlling atherosclerosis through precise interventions.

Lung cancer associated with combustion particles and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) - The roles of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)

Air pollution is the leading cause of lung cancer after tobacco smoking, contributing to 20% of all lung cancer deaths. Increased risk associated with living near trafficked roads, occupational exposure to diesel exhaust, indoor coal combustion and cigarette smoking, suggest that combustion components in ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5), such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), may be central drivers of lung cancer. Activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) induces expression of xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XMEs) and increase PAH metabolism, formation of reactive metabolites, oxidative stress, DNA damage and mutagenesis. Lung cancer tissues from smokers and workers exposed to high combustion PM levels contain mutagenic signatures derived from PAHs. However, recent findings suggest that ambient air PM2.5 exposure primarily induces lung cancer development through tumor promotion of cells harboring naturally acquired oncogenic mutations, thus lacking typical PAH-induced mutations. On this background, we discuss the role of AhR and PAHs in lung cancer development caused by air pollution focusing on the tumor promoting properties including metabolism, immune system, cell proliferation and survival, tumor microenvironment, cell-to-cell communication, tumor growth and metastasis. We suggest that the dichotomy in lung cancer patterns observed between smoking and outdoor air PM2.5 represent the two ends of a dose-response continuum of combustion PM exposure, where tumor promotion in the peripheral lung appears to be the driving factor at the relatively low-dose exposures from ambient air PM2.5, whereas genotoxicity in the central airways becomes increasingly more important at the higher combustion PM levels encountered through smoking and occupational exposure.

The Tryptophan and Kynurenine Pathway Involved in the Development of Immune-Related Diseases

The tryptophan and kynurenine pathway is well-known to play an important role in nervous, endocrine, and immune systems, as well as in the development of inflammatory diseases. It has been documented that some kynurenine metabolites are considered to have anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and/or neuroprotective properties. Importantly, many of these kynurenine metabolites may possess immune-regulatory properties that could alleviate the inflammation response. The abnormal activation of the tryptophan and kynurenine pathway might be involved in the pathophysiological process of various immune-related diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and/or polycystic ovary syndrome. Interestingly, kynurenine metabolites may be involved in the brain memory system and/or intricate immunity via the modulation of glial function. In the further deliberation of this concept with engram, the roles of gut microbiota could lead to the development of remarkable treatments for the prevention of and/or the therapeutics for various intractable immune-related diseases.

Bacillus Calmette-Guérin-induced interleukin-10 inhibits S100A8/A9 production and hinders development of T helper type 1 memory in mice

Tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb) is one of the main causes of human death in the world. Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) provides limited protection in adolescents and adults. To explore the factors reducing efficacy of BCG vaccine, we assess the impacts of interleukin (IL)-10 and alarmins S100A8/A9 on T-cell memory. We found that BCG-induced IL-10 inhibited production of S100A8/A9 in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and murine splenocytes. S100A9 deficiency inhibited IFN-γ production by CD4⁺ T cells in the early phase of BCG immunization and hindered the development of effector memory T helper type 1 (Th1) cells, while IL-10 deficiency promoted Th1 memory and blocking IL-10 signaling enhanced Th1 protective recall response against M.tb. IL-10 inhibited the binding of transcription factor CCAAT enhancer binding protein beta to S100a8/a9 promoter leading to S100A8/A9 reduction. S100A8/A9 heterodimer enhanced the IFN-γ production via receptor for advanced glycation end products signaling in CD4⁺ T cells. Our results demonstrate a hurdle to development of Th1 memory after BCG immunization and clarify the mechanism of the regulation of Th1 memory by IL-10 and S100A8/A9.

Environmental exposure and the role of AhR in the tumor microenvironment of breast cancer

Activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) through environmental exposure to chemicals including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) can lead to severe adverse health effects and increase the risk of breast cancer. This review considers several mechanisms which link the tumor promoting effects of environmental pollutants with the AhR signaling pathway, contributing to the development and progression of breast cancer. We explore AhR's function in shaping the tumor microenvironment, modifying immune tolerance, and regulating cancer stemness, driving breast cancer chemoresistance and metastasis. The complexity of AhR, with evidence for both oncogenic and tumor suppressor roles is discussed. We propose that AhR functions as a "molecular bridge", linking disproportionate toxin exposure and policies which underlie environmental injustice with tumor cell behaviors which drive poor patient outcomes.

Cardiac disorder-related adverse events for aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonists: a safety review

BACKGROUND

Although cardiac disorder-related adverse events (AEs) have been reported in patients treated with aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) agonists, their safety profiles remain unknown. Here, we identified significant cardiac disorders associated with AHR agonists and further evaluated their relevance.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Database queries were performed using OpenVigil 2.1 and AEs voluntarily submitted to Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) between 2004 and 2020 were included. This study based on the Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities and the standardized MedDRA Queries to define the preferred terms, and we used reporting odd ratio to detect signals.

RESULTS

In the FAERS database, 14,078 cardiac disorder-related AEs were identified in patients receiving AHR agonists. Among all AHR agonists, the number of cardiac disorder-related PTs with positive signals for AHR agonists was 93. Peripheral swelling (n = 1572) and atrial fibrillation (n = 1277) were the most reported cardiac disorder-related AEs among AHR agonists in disproportionately reported PTs. Moreover, several AHR agonists were highly associated with tachyarrhythmia.

CONCLUSIONS

By mining the FAERS database, we provided more information on the association between AHR agonist use and cardiac disorder-related AEs.

Gut microbiome metabolites as key actors in atherosclerosis co-depression disease

Cardiovascular diseases, mainly characterized by atherosclerosis (AS), and depression have a high comorbidity rate. However, previous studies have been conducted under a single disease, and there is a lack of studies in comorbid states to explore the commonalities in the pathogenesis of both diseases. Modern high-throughput technologies have made it clear that the gut microbiome can affect the development of the host's own disorders and have shown that their metabolites are crucial to the pathophysiology of AS and depression. The aim of this review is to summarize the current important findings on the role of gut microbiome metabolites such as pathogen-associated molecular patterns, bile acids, tryptophan metabolites, short-chain fatty acids, and trimethylamine N -oxide in depression and AS disease, with the aim of identifying potential biological targets for the early diagnosis and treatment of AS co-depression disorders.

Microbiota-derived tryptophan metabolites in vascular inflammation and cardiovascular disease

The essential amino acid tryptophan (Trp) is metabolized by gut commensals, yielding in compounds that affect innate immune cell functions directly, but also acting on the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), thus regulating the maintenance of group 3 innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), promoting T helper 17 (TH17) cell differentiation, and interleukin-22 production. In addition, microbiota-derived Trp metabolites have direct effects on the vascular endothelium, thus influencing the development of vascular inflammatory phenotypes. Indoxyl sulfate was demonstrated to promote vascular inflammation, whereas indole-3-propionic acid and indole-3-aldehyde had protective roles. Furthermore, there is increasing evidence for a contributory role of microbiota-derived indole-derivatives in blood pressure regulation and hypertension. Interestingly, there are indications for a role of the kynurenine pathway in atherosclerotic lesion development. Here, we provide an overview on the emerging role of gut commensals in the modulation of Trp metabolism and its influence in cardiovascular disease development.

Oral Administration of Omega-3 Fatty Acids Attenuates Lung Injury Caused by PM2.5 Respiratory Inhalation Simply and Feasibly In Vivo

For developing an effective interventional approach and treatment modality for PM2.5, the effects of omega-3 fatty acids on alleviating inflammation and attenuating lung injury induced by inhalation exposure of PM2.5 were assessed in murine models. We found that daily oral administration of the active components of omega-3 fatty acids, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) effectively alleviated lung parenchymal lesions, restored normal inflammatory cytokine levels and oxidative stress levels in treating mice exposed to PM2.5 (20 mg/kg) every 3 days for 5 times over a 14-day period. Especially, CT images and the pathological analysis suggested protective effects of DHA and EPA on lung injury. The key molecular mechanism is that DHA and EPA can inhibit the entry and deposition of PM2.5, and block the PM2.5-mediated cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammation.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Signaling Synergizes with TLR/NF-κB-Signaling for Induction of IL-22 Through Canonical and Non-Canonical AhR Pathways

Interleukin 22 (IL-22) is critically involved in gut immunity and host defense and primarily produced by activated T cells. In different circumstances IL-22 may contribute to pathological conditions or act as a cancer promoting cytokine secreted by infiltrating immune cells. Here we show that bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMM) express and produce IL-22 after activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) when cells are activated through the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family. The additional activation of AhR triggered a significant induction of IL-22 in TLR-activated BMM. Deletion and mutation constructs of the IL-22 promoter revealed that a consensus DRE and RelBAhRE binding element are necessary to mediate the synergistic effects of AhR and TLR ligands. Inhibitor studies and analysis of BMM derived from knockout mice confirmed that the synergistic induction of IL-22 by AhR and TLR ligands depend on the expression of AhR and Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) member RelB. The exposure to particulate matter (PM) collected from traffic related air pollution (TRAP) and wildfires activated AhR as well as NF-κB signaling and significantly induced the expression of IL-22. In summary this study shows that simultaneous activation of the AhR and NF-κB signaling pathways leads to synergistic and prolonged induction of IL-22 by integrating signals of the canonical and non-canonical AhR pathway.

Interleukin-22: a potential therapeutic target in atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis is recognized as a chronic immuno-inflammatory disease that is characterized by the accumulation of immune cells and lipids in the vascular wall. In this review, we focus on the latest advance regarding the regulation and signaling pathways of IL-22 and highlight its impacts on atherosclerosis.

MAIN BODY

IL-22, an important member of the IL-10 family of cytokines, is released by cells of the adaptive and innate immune system and plays a key role in the development of inflammatory diseases. The binding of IL-22 to its receptor complex can trigger a diverse array of downstream signaling pathways, in particular the JAK/STAT, to induce the expression of chemokines and proinflammatory cytokines. Recently, numerous studies suggest that IL-22 is involved in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis by regulation of VSMC proliferation and migration, angiogenesis, inflammatory response, hypertension, and cholesterol metabolism.

CONCLUSION

IL-22 promotes the development of atherosclerosis by multiple mechanisms, which may be a promising therapeutic target in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.

The melatonergic pathway and its interactions in modulating respiratory system disorders

Melatonin is a key intracellular neuroimmune-endocrine regulator and coordinator of multiple complex and interrelated biological processes. The main functions of melatonin include the regulation of neuroendocrine and antioxidant system activity, blood pressure, rhythms of the sleep-wake cycle, the retardation of ageing processes, as well as reseting and optimizing mitochondria and thereby the cells of the immune system. Melatonin and its agonists have therefore been mooted as a treatment option across a wide array of medical disorders. This article reviews the role of melatonin in the regulation of respiratory system functions under normal and pathological conditions. Melatonin can normalize the structural and functional organization of damaged lung tissues, by a number of mechanisms, including the regulation of signaling molecules, oxidant status, lipid raft function, optimized mitochondrial function and reseting of the immune response over the circadian rhythm. Consequently, melatonin has potential clinical utility for bronchial asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, lung cancer, lung vascular diseases, as well as pulmonary and viral infections. The integration of melatonin's effects with the alpha 7 nicotinic receptor and the aryl hydrocarbon receptor in the regulation of mitochondrial function are proposed as a wider framework for understanding the role of melatonin across a wide array of diverse pulmonary disorders.