Roles of Non-Coding RNAs in Response to Nitrogen Availability in Plants

MYB proteins: Versatile regulators of plant development, stress responses, and secondary metabolite biosynthetic pathways

MYB proteins are ubiquitous in nature, regulating key aspects of plant growth and development. Although MYB proteins are known for regulating genes involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis, particularly phenylpropanoids, their roles in terpenoid, glucosinolate, and alkaloid biosynthesis remain less understood. This review explores the structural and functional differences between activator and repressor MYB proteins along with their roles in plant growth, development, stress responses, and secondary metabolite production. MYB proteins serve as central hubs in protein-protein interaction networks that regulate expression of numerous genes involved in the adaptation of plants to varying environmental conditions. Thus, we also highlight key interacting partners of MYB proteins and their roles in these adaptation mechanisms. We further discuss the mechanisms regulating MYB proteins, including autoregulation, epigenetics, and post-transcriptional and post-translational modifications. Overall, we propose MYB proteins as versatile regulators for improving plant traits, stress responses, and secondary metabolite production.

MicroRNAs as potent regulators in nitrogen and phosphorus signaling transduction and their applications

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (Pi) are essential macronutrients that affect plant growth and development by influencing the molecular, metabolic, biochemical, and physiological responses at the local and whole levels in plants. N and Pi stresses suppress the physiological activities of plants, resulting in agricultural productivity losses and severely threatening food security. Accordingly, plants have elaborated diverse strategies to cope with N and Pi stresses through maintaining N and Pi homeostasis. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) as potent regulators fine-tune N and Pi signaling transduction that are distinct and indivisible from each other. Specific signals, such as noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), interact with miRNAs and add to the complexity of regulation. Elucidation of the mechanisms by which miRNAs regulate N and Pi signaling transduction aids in the breeding of plants with strong tolerance to N and Pi stresses and high N and Pi use efficiency by fine-tuning MIR genes or miRNAs. However, to date, there has been no detailed and systematic introduction and comparison of the functions of miRNAs in N and Pi signaling transduction from the perspective of miRNAs and their applications. Here, we summarized and discussed current advances in the involvement of miRNAs in N and Pi signaling transduction and highlighted that fine-tuning the MIR genes or miRNAs involved in maintaining N and Pi homeostasis might provide valuable sights for sustainable agriculture.

Plants Recruit Peptides and Micro RNAs to Regulate Nutrient Acquisition from Soil and Symbiosis

Plants engage in symbiotic relationships with soil microorganisms to overcome nutrient limitations in their environment. Among the best studied endosymbiotic interactions in plants are those with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and N-fixing bacteria called rhizobia. The mechanisms regulating plant nutrient homeostasis and acquisition involve small mobile molecules such as peptides and micro RNAs (miRNAs). A large number of CLE (CLAVATA3/EMBRYO SURROUNDING REGION-RELATED) and CEP (C-TERMINALLY ENCODED PEPTIDE) peptide hormones as well as certain miRNAs have been reported to differentially respond to the availability of essential nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Interestingly, a partially overlapping pool of these molecules is involved in plant responses to root colonization by rhizobia and AM fungi, as well as mineral nutrition. The crosstalk between root endosymbiosis and nutrient availability has been subject of intense investigations, and new insights in locally or systemically mobile molecules in nutrient- as well as symbiosis-related signaling continue to arise. Focusing on the key roles of peptides and miRNAs, we review the mechanisms that shape plant responses to nutrient limitation and regulate the establishment of symbiotic associations with beneficial soil microorganisms.

MicroRNAs modulating nutrient homeostasis: a sustainable approach for developing biofortified crops

During their lifespan, sessile plants have to cope with bioavailability of the suboptimal nutrient concentration and have to constantly sense/evolve the connecting web of signal cascades for efficient nutrient uptake, storage, and translocation for proper growth and metabolism. However, environmental fluctuations and escalating anthropogenic activities are making it a formidable challenge for plants. This is adding to (micro)nutrient-deficient crops and nutritional insecurity. Biofortification is emerging as a sustainable and efficacious approach which can be utilized to combat the micronutrient malnutrition. A biofortified crop has an enriched level of desired nutrients developed using conventional breeding, agronomic practices, or advanced biotechnological tools. Nutrient homeostasis gets hampered under nutrient stress, which involves disturbance in short-distance and long-distance cell-cell/cell-organ communications involving multiple cellular and molecular components. Advanced sequencing platforms coupled with bioinformatics pipelines and databases have suggested the potential roles of tiny signaling molecules and post-transcriptional regulators, the microRNAs (miRNAs) in key plant phenomena including nutrient homeostasis. miRNAs are seen as emerging targets for biotechnology-based biofortification programs. Thus, understanding the mechanistic insights and regulatory role of miRNAs could open new windows for exploring them in developing nutrient-efficient biofortified crops. This review discusses significance and roles of miRNAs in plant nutrition and nutrient homeostasis and how they play key roles in plant responses to nutrient imbalances/deficiencies/toxicities covering major nutrients-nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn). A perspective view has been given on developing miRNA-engineered biofortified crops with recent success stories. Current challenges and future strategies have also been discussed.

Noncoding RNAs responsive to nitric oxide and their protein-coding gene targets shed light on root hair formation in Arabidopsis thaliana

An overview of the total Arabidopsis thaliana transcriptome, described previously by our research group, pointed some noncoding RNA (ncRNA) as participants in the restoration of hair-root phenotype in A. thaliana rhd6 mutants, leading us to a deeper investigation. A transcriptional gene expression profiling of seedling roots was performed aiming to identify ncRNA responsive to nitric oxide (GSNO) and auxin (IAA), and their involvement in root hair formation in the rhd6 null mutant. We identified 3,631 ncRNAs, including new ones, in A. thaliana and differential expression (DE) analysis between the following: 1) GSNO-treated rhd6 vs. untreated rhd6, 2) IAA-treated rhd6 vs. untreated rhd6, 3) GSNO-treated rhd6 vs. IAA-treated rhd6, and 4) WS-2 vs. untreated rhd6 detected the greatest number of DE genes in GSNO-treated rhd6. We detected hundreds of in silico interactions among ncRNA and protein-coding genes (PCGs), highlighting MIR5658 and MIR171 precursors highly upregulated in GSNO-treated rhd6 and wild type, respectively. Those ncRNA interact with many DE PCGs involved in hormone signaling, cell wall development, transcription factors, and root hair formation, becoming candidate genes in cell wall modulation and restoration of root hair phenotype by GSNO treatment. Our data shed light on how GSNO modulates ncRNA and their PCG targets in A. thaliana root hair formation.

Global Identification of White Lupin lncRNAs Reveals Their Role in Cluster Roots under Phosphorus Deficiency

Phosphorus (P) deficiency heterogeneously affected plant nutritional status and physiological performance, ultimately leading to a severe yield reduction. A few putative long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) responding to P-starvation in the model crops Arabidopsis thaliana and Oryza sativa have been characterized. White lupin (Lupinus albus) is of prime importance, and is a legume with increasing agronomic value as a protein crop as it exhibits extreme tolerance to nutrient deficiency, particularly P deficiency. Despite its adapted nature to P deficiency, nothing is known about low P-induced lncRNAs in white lupin roots. To address this issue, we identified 39,840 mRNA and 2028 lncRNAs in the eight developmental stages of white lupin root (S0-S7 and lateral root, LR) grown under P deficiency. From these 2028 lncRNAs, 1564 were intergenic and 464 natural antisense intergenic transcript (NAT) lncRNAs. We further predicted six potential targets of miRNAs with twelve lncRNAs, which may regulate P-deficiency-related processes. Moreover, the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) revealed seven modules that were correlated with the expression pattern of lncRNAs. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis revealed 606 GO terms and 27 different pathways including signal transduction, energy synthesis, detoxification, and Pi transport. In addition, we screened 13 putative lncRNAs that showed a distinct expression pattern in each root, indicating their role in the P deficiency regulatory network. Therefore, white lupin may be a reference legume to characterize P-deficiency-responsive novel lncRNAs, which would highlight the role of lncRNAs in the regulation of plant responses to P deficiency.

Identification and Functional Prediction of Poplar Root circRNAs Involved in Treatment With Different Forms of Nitrogen

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a class of noncoding RNA molecules with ring structures formed by covalent bonds and are commonly present in organisms, playing an important regulatory role in plant growth and development. However, the mechanism of circRNAs in poplar root responses to different forms of nitrogen (N) is still unclear. In this study, high-throughput sequencing was used to identify and predict the function of circRNAs in the roots of poplar exposed to three N forms [1 mM NO₃ ^- (T1), 0.5 mM NH₄NO₃ (T2, control) and 1 mM NH₄ ⁺ (T3)]. A total of 2,193 circRNAs were identified, and 37, 24 and 45 differentially expressed circRNAs (DECs) were screened in the T1-T2, T3-T2 and T1-T3 comparisons, respectively. In addition, 30 DECs could act as miRNA sponges, and several of them could bind miRNA family members that play key roles in response to different N forms, indicating their important functions in response to N and plant growth and development. Furthermore, we generated a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory network in poplar roots treated with three N forms. DECs could participate in responses to N in poplar roots through the ceRNA regulatory network, which mainly included N metabolism, amino acid metabolism and synthesis, response to NO₃ ^- or NH₄ ⁺ and remobilization of N. Together, these results provide new insights into the potential role of circRNAs in poplar root responses to different N forms.

An Integrated Regulatory Network of mRNAs, microRNAs, and lncRNAs Involved in Nitrogen Metabolism of Moso Bamboo

Nitrogen is a key macronutrient essential for plant growth and development, and its availability has a strong influence on biological processes. Nitrogen fertilizer has been widely applied in bamboo forests in recent decades; however, the mechanism of nitrogen metabolism in bamboo is not fully elucidated. Here, we characterized the morphological, physiological, and transcriptome changes of moso bamboo in response to different schemes for nitrogen addition to illuminate the regulation mechanism of nitrogen metabolism. The appropriate addition of nitrogen improved the chlorophyll content and Pn (net photosynthetic rate) of leaves, the nitrogen and ammonium contents of the seedling roots, the biomass of the whole seedling, the number of lateral roots, and the activity of enzymes involved in nitrogen metabolism in the roots. Based on the whole transcriptome data of the roots, a total of 8,632 differentially expressed mRNAs (DEGs) were identified under different nitrogen additions, such as 52 nitrate transporter genes, 6 nitrate reductase genes, 2 nitrite reductase genes, 2 glutamine synthase genes, 2 glutamate synthase genes (GOGAT), 3 glutamate dehydrogenase genes, and 431 TFs belonging to 23 families. Meanwhile, 123 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) and 396 differentially expressed lncRNAs (DELs) were characterized as nitrogen responsive, respectively. Furthermore, 94 DEM-DEG pairs and 23 DEL-DEG pairs involved in nitrogen metabolism were identified. Finally, a predicted regulatory network of nitrogen metabolism was initially constructed, which included 17 nitrogen metabolic pathway genes, 15 TFs, 4 miRNAs, and 10 lncRNAs by conjoint analysis of DEGs, DEMs, and DELs and their regulatory relationships, which was supported by RNA-seq data and qPCR results. The lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA network provides new insights into the regulation mechanism of nitrogen metabolism in bamboo, which facilitates further genetic improvement for bamboo to adapt to the fluctuating nitrogen environment.

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of Long Noncoding RNAs in Populus × canescens Roots Treated With Different Nitrogen Fertilizers

Nitrate (NO₃ ^-) and ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) are the primary forms of inorganic nitrogen acquired by plant roots. LncRNAs, as key regulators of gene expression, are a class of non-coding RNAs larger than 200 bp. However, knowledge about the regulatory role of lncRNAs in response to different nitrogen forms remains limited, particularly in woody plants. Here, we performed strand-specific RNA-sequencing of P. × canescens roots under three different nitrogen fertilization treatments. In total, 324 lncRNAs and 6,112 mRNAs were identified as showing significantly differential expression between the NO₃ ^- and NH₄NO₃ treatments. Moreover, 333 lncRNAs and 6,007 mRNAs showed significantly differential expression between the NH₄ ⁺ and NH₄NO₃ treatments. Further analysis suggested that these lncRNAs and mRNAs have different response mechanisms for different nitrogen forms. In addition, functional annotation of cis and trans target mRNAs of differentially expressed lncRNAs indicated that 60 lncRNAs corresponding to 49 differentially expressed cis and trans target mRNAs were involved in plant nitrogen metabolism and amino acid biosynthesis and metabolism. Furthermore, 42 lncRNAs were identified as putative precursors of 63 miRNAs, and 28 differentially expressed lncRNAs were potential endogenous target mimics targeted by 96 miRNAs. Moreover, ceRNA regulation networks were constructed. MSTRG.6097.1, MSTRG.13550.1, MSTRG.2693.1, and MSTRG.12899.1, as hub lncRNAs in the ceRNA networks, are potential candidate lncRNAs for studying the regulatory mechanism in poplar roots under different nitrogen fertilization treatments. The results provide a basis for obtaining insight into the molecular mechanisms of lncRNA responses to different nitrogen forms in woody plants.

Regulatory long non-coding RNAs in root growth and development

As sessile organisms, plants have evolved sophisticated mechanisms of gene regulation to cope with changing environments. Among them, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are a class of RNAs regulating gene expression at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. They are highly responsive to environmental cues or developmental processes and are generally involved in fine-tuning plant responses to these signals. Roots, in addition to anchoring the plant to the soil, allow it to absorb the major part of its mineral nutrients and water. Furthermore, roots directly sense environmental constraints such as mineral nutrient availability and abiotic or biotic stresses and dynamically adapt their growth and architecture. Here, we review the role of lncRNAs in the control of root growth and development. In particular, we highlight their action in fine-tuning primary root growth and the development of root lateral organs, such as lateral roots and symbiotic nodules. Lastly, we report their involvement in plant response to stresses and the regulation of nutrient assimilation and homeostasis, two processes leading to the modification of root architecture. LncRNAs could become interesting targets in plant breeding programs to subtly acclimate crops to coming environmental changes.

Recent Advances in Carbon and Nitrogen Metabolism in C3 Plants

C and N are the most important essential elements constituting organic compounds in plants. The shoots and roots depend on each other by exchanging C and N through the xylem and phloem transport systems. Complex mechanisms regulate C and N metabolism to optimize plant growth, agricultural crop production, and maintenance of the agroecosystem. In this paper, we cover the recent advances in understanding C and N metabolism, regulation, and transport in plants, as well as their underlying molecular mechanisms. Special emphasis is given to the mechanisms of starch metabolism in plastids and the changes in responses to environmental stress that were previously overlooked, since these changes provide an essential store of C that fuels plant metabolism and growth. We present general insights into the system biology approaches that have expanded our understanding of core biological questions related to C and N metabolism. Finally, this review synthesizes recent advances in our understanding of the trade-off concept that links C and N status to the plant's response to microorganisms.