Uptake of MicroRNAs from Exosome-Like Nanovesicles of Edible Plant Juice by Rat Enterocytes

Therapeutic Potential of Plant-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles in Sepsis: A Network Meta-analysis

Sepsis is a life-threatening condition characterized by systemic inflammation and multi-organ dysfunction. Plant-derived small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have emerged as promising therapeutic agents due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties. This study conducted a network meta-analysis to identify the most effective plant-derived sEVs for reducing sepsis-induced inflammation and oxidative stress. The analysis included 13 studies evaluating 10 plant-derived sEVs in sepsis-mimicking conditions, with primary outcomes focused on cytokine levels and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in vitro and in vivo. Secondary outcomes included nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression and cell viability. The study protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD420251011005). Ginger-derived sEVs were identified as the most effective, significantly reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α), increasing the anti-inflammatory cytokine (interleukin-10), and suppressing ROS production. They also enhanced Nrf2 expression and improved cell viability, highlighting their role in antioxidant defense and cytoprotection. In conclusion, ginger-derived sEVs are the most effective plant-derived sEVs for mitigating sepsis-induced inflammation and oxidation in both in vitro and in vivo sepsis-mimicking models.

Colon health benefits of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles via modulating gut microbiota and immunity

Exosomes are nanoscale particles with a lipid bilayer membrane that were first identified in mammalian cells. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) share structural and molecular similarities with mammalian exosomes, including lipids, proteins, microRNA (miRNA), and plant-derived metabolites. Owing to their unique characteristics, such as outstanding stability, low immunogenicity, high biocompatibility, and sustainability, PELNs have emerged as promising natural bioactive agents with the capacity for cross-kingdom cellular regulation. Dietary supplementation with PELNs, particularly from fruits and vegetables, has demonstrated health benefits. An increasing number of studies have indicated the beneficial effects of PELNs on colon health. This review summarizes the isolation and characterization of PELNs, and their stability, uptake, and distribution after oral ingestion. Furthermore, this review emphasizes the interactions between PELNs, gut microbiota, and the gut immune system, including the uptake of PELNs by gut microbiota, modulation of gut bacteria metabolism, and immune responses by PELNs. Additionally, the applications of PELNs as bioactive components and drug carriers targeting the colon are reviewed. In summary, PELNs represent a versatile and natural approach to improve colon health, with potential applications in both therapeutic and preventive healthcare strategies.

Update on the roles and applications of extracellular vesicles in depression

Depression is a prevalent mental disorder that affects numerous individuals, manifesting as persistent anhedonia, sadness, and hopelessness. Despite extensive research, the exact causes and optimal treatment approaches for depression remain unclear. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which carry biological molecules such as proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites, have emerged as crucial players in both pathological and physiological processes. EVs derived from various sources exert distinct effects on depression. Specifically, EVs released by neurons, astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, immune cells, stem cells, and even bacteria contribute to the pathogenesis of depression. Moreover, there is growing interest in potential of EVs as diagnostic and therapeutic tools for depression. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent research on EVs from different sources, their roles in depression, and their potential clinical applications.

Perianal fistulizing Crohn's disease: Mechanisms and treatment options focusing on cellular therapy

Perianal fistulizing Crohn's disease (PFCD) is a common presentation of CD, which affects the patients' quality of life, including social and sexual function. The management of PFCD remains a critical challenge in inflammatory bowel disease, primarily due to limited understanding of the mechanisms involved in its pathogenesis, complicating medical treatment. Increased production of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-13 by infiltrating macrophages and other inflammatory cells stimulate the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, resulting in activation of myofibroblasts and elevation of matrix metalloproteinases, leading to fistula formation. Given the potential for malignant transformation, PFCD screening is critical. Cytokine and inflammation-targeted therapies can help control this disease, but recurrence is a common complication. Surgical interventions such as fistulotomy represent viable therapeutic options, with magnetic resonance imaging serving as an important diagnostic tool for delineating fistula tract anatomy. Animal models and clinical trials demonstrate that injection of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into the fistula results in suppression of the inflammatory cells and cytokines and complete resolution of PFCD. Recently, MSC-derived extracellular vesicles were found to stimulate fistula healing, with encouraging results. In this article, we comment on the review article by Pacheco et al, summarizing the various lines of PFCD treatment and highlighting the role of screening for this disease. Importantly, we focus on the various mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of PFCD, the therapeutic roles of MSCs and related extracellular vesicles, and explore the potential role of autophagy in enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of these cells, which may help in the treatment of this disease.

Isolation and characterization of medicinal plant-based extracellular vesicles as nano delivery systems for ascorbic acid

AIM

Plant-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are natural nanovesicles for drug delivery. This study isolated and characterised EVs from medicinal plants as delivery vehicles.

METHODS

Precipitation method was employed for the isolation and characterised using DLS, SEM, and TEM. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) and antioxidant activity of ascorbic acid (AA)-EVs were evaluated.

RESULTS

The total yields of lyophilised vesicles per weight of the sample were 6.0, 8.6 and 9.2 mg/g for garlic, turmeric and ginger, respectively. Mean size of garlic-derived EVs, ginger-derived EVs, and turmeric-derived EVs were 101.0 ± 6.7, 226.4 ± 62.2 and 90.7 ± 2.5 nm, respectively. The zeta potential of the EVs was between -33.2 ± 10.9 and -28.8 ± 8.43 mV. Spherical morphology of the nanovesicles was confirmed by SEM and TEM. The EE of the EVs was between 78.1 ± 2.8% and 87.2 ± 1.4%.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the antioxidant activity of AA-loaded EVs was better compared to free AA. This study provides evidence that these medicinal plants are rich sources for developing nanotherapeutics.

Ginger exosome-like nanoparticle-derived miRNA therapeutics: A strategic inhibitor of intestinal inflammation

INTRODUCTION

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) involve in destabilising messenger RNA or repressing translation of target molecules. Ginger-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (GELNs) play a crucial role in modulating intestinal inflammation. Moreover, GELNs contain highly heterogeneous miRNA. However, the role of miRNAs derived from GELNs in immunomodulation remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to elucidate the molecular basis of the unique biological effects mediated by miRNA derived from GELNs on macrophages.

METHODS

GELNs were isolated using a combination of commercial exosome isolation kits and the differential centrifugation method, and the lipid composition of GELNs was determined using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Subsequently, PKH26 labelled GELNs were taken up by macrophages. Furthermore, the modulation of inflammatory and immune responses by GELNs or osa-miR164d was assessed through the RNA-seq, RT-qPCR, online databases, and dual luciferase reporter assays to explore the underlying mechanisms of osa-miR164d. Biomimetic exosomes loaded with osa-miR164d were prepared using a microfluidic mixing device and systematically characterized. The therapeutic effects of osa-miR164d on relieving colitis were evaluated.

RESULTS

We report for the first time that GELNs-derived osa-miR164d is a regulatory factor of reprogramming macrophage polarization, thereby inhibiting the intestinal inflammatory response. Mechanistically, osa-miR164d directly targets the 3'-UTRs of TAB1, which regulates macrophage polarization through the downregulation of NF-κB expression. In addition, We have designed a biomimetic exosome mimicking GELNs to deliver osa-miR164d (osa-miR164d-MGELNs). Notably, the osa-miR164d-MGELNs can efficiently reprogram macrophages to alleviate colitis-related symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Our findings enhance the systematic understanding of how GELNs-derived osa-miR164d mediates cross-kingdom communication and provide an original engineering paradigm for mimicking GELNs to transfer miRNA.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles in tissue repair and regeneration

This article reviews plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs), and highlights their potential in regenerative medicine. Various extraction techniques, including ultracentrifugation and ultrafiltration, and their impact on ELN purity and yield were discussed. Characterization methods such as microscopy and particle analysis are found to play crucial roles in defining ELN properties. This review is focused on exploring the therapeutic potential of ELNs in tissue repair, immune regulation, and antioxidant activities. Further research and optimization methods for extraction of ELNs to realize clinical potential applications are necessary.

MicroRNA mediates the effects of food factors

Food factors elicit physiological effects by interfering with the central dogma system, including DNA methylation, replication, transcription, and translation. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are noncoding short RNAs that are ∼20 nucleotides long and play a crucial role in the regulation of mRNA levels and translation processes. Importantly, miRNAs can be delivered to different locations in nanovesicles. However, little is known about their roles as mediators of the effects of food factors. This review introduces recent findings on the role of miRNAs in the beneficial effects of food factors, including green tea polyphenols and soybean isoflavones, and discusses the importance of miRNAs as mediators of the beneficial effects of food.

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles for microRNA delivery in cancer treatment

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are natural nanocarriers and effective delivery systems for plant microRNAs (miRNAs). These PELN-carrying plant miRNAs can regulate mammalian genes across species, thereby increasing the diversity of miRNAs in mammals and exerting multi-target effects that play a crucial role in diseases, particularly cancer. PELNs demonstrate exceptional stability, biocompatibility, and targeting capabilities that protect and facilitate the up-take and cross-kingdom communication of plant miRNAs in mammals. Primarily ingested and absorbed within the gastrointestinal tract of mammals, PELNs preferentially act on the intestine to regulate intestinal homeostasis through functional miRNA activity. The oncogenesis and progression of cancer are closely associated with disruptions in intestinal barriers, ecological imbalances, as well as secondary changes, such as abnormal inflammatory reactions caused by them. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate whether PELNs exert their anticancer effects by regulating mammalian intestinal homeostasis and inflammation. This review aims to elucidate the intrinsic crosstalk relationships and mechanisms of PELNs-mediated miRNAs in maintaining intestinal homeostasis, regulating inflammation and cancer treatment. Furthermore, serving as exceptional drug delivery systems for miRNAs molecules, PELNs offer broad prospects for future applications, including new drug research and development along with drug carrier selection within targeted drug delivery approaches for cancer therapy.

Chinese herbal medicine-derived extracellular vesicles as novel biotherapeutic tools: present and future

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are phospholipid bilayer-enclosed biological particles that are secreted by almost all living cells including animals, plants, and microorganisms. Chinese herbal medicines (CHM) have a long history of using plant-based remedies to treat and prevent human diseases. Chinese herbal medicine-derived extracellular vesicle (CHMEV) generic term refers to nanoscale membrane structures isolated from medicinal plants such as ginseng, ginger, and Panax notoginseng. In recent years, CHMEVs have garnered substantial attention as a novel class of functional components due to their high bioavailability, safety, easy accessibility, and diverse therapeutic effects, indicating their great potential for development as a new dosage form of CHM. Research on CHMEVs in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has become a prominent area of interest, opening new avenues for further exploration into the therapeutic effects and functional mechanisms of CHM. Nonetheless, as an emerging field, there is much unknown about these vesicles, and current research remains inconsistent. The review comprehensively summarizes the biogenesis, isolation methods, and physical, and biochemical characterizations of CHMEVs. Additionally, we highlight their biomedical applications as therapeutic agents and drug delivery carriers, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, regenerative, and antiaging activities. Finally, we propose current challenges and future perspectives. By summarizing the existing literature, we aim to offer valuable clues and inspiration for future CHMEV research, thereby facilitating research standardization of CHMEVs in the treatment of human diseases and drug discovery.

Oral administration of tea-derived exosome-like nanoparticles protects epithelial and immune barrier of intestine from psychological stress

Psychological stress disrupts the integrity of the intestinal barrier and is strongly linked to emotional disorders, behavioral changes, and gastrointestinal dysfunction. However, there are limited treatment options available for repairing the damage to the intestinal barrier. As a natural plant-based health beverage, tea (Camellia sinensis) has been shown to have various potentially advantageous effects on the intestinal barrier and immune function. In this study, we extracted bioactive molecules from tea leaves, named exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs), and then examined their potential protective properties for the intestinal barrier. Through in vitro experimentation, we investigated whether tea-derived ELNs (TELNs) could offer a protective effect against lipopolysaccharides-induced damage to the intestinal barrier. In an in vivo experiment, rats were exposed to water avoidance stress and subsequently administered TELNs orally. The administration of TELNs resulted in the enhancement of the epithelial barrier in the intestine, effectively preventing bacterial translocation to the submucosae. Additionally, TELNs were found to improve the function of the intestinal immune barrier through the mediation of interleukin-22 and the increased secretion of antimicrobial peptide Reg3g. Notably, miR-44 and miR-54 in TELNs exhibited similar protective effects on the intestinal barrier. These findings suggest that TELNs possess the ability to restore the integrity of the intestinal barrier in the context of psychological stress.

Exosome-like nanoparticles derived from fruits, vegetables, and herbs: innovative strategies of therapeutic and drug delivery

Over the past ten years, significant advancements have been made in exploring plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) for disease therapeutics and drug delivery. PELNs, as inherent nanoscale particles comprised of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and secondary metabolites, exhibit the capacity for cellular uptake by human cells. This intercellular interaction transcends biological boundaries, effectively influencing biological functions in animals. PELNs have outstanding biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, enhanced safety, and environmentally friendly sustainability. This article summarized the preparation methods and characteristics of PELNs. It provided a systematic review of the varied roles of PELNs derived from fruits, vegetables, and herbs in disease therapeutics and drug delivery. The challenges in their production and application were discussed, and future prospects in this rapidly evolving field were explored.

Recognition on pharmacodynamic ingredients of natural products

Natural products (NPs) play an irreplaceable role in the intervention of various diseases and have been considered a critical source of drug development. Many new pharmacodynamic compounds with potential clinical applications have recently been derived from NPs. These compounds range from small molecules to polysaccharides, polypeptides, proteins, self-assembled nanoparticles, and extracellular vesicles. This review summarizes various active substances found in NPs. The investigation of active substances in NPs can potentiate new drug development and promote the in-depth comprehension of the mechanism of action of NPs that can be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of human diseases.

Research status and challenges of plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles

In recent years, there has been an increasing number of related studies on exosomes. Most studies have focused on exosomes derived from mammals, confirming the important role that exosomes play in cell communication. Plants, as a natural ingredient, plant-derived exosomes have been confirmed to have similar structures and functions to mammalian-derived exosomes. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs) are lipid bilayer membrane nanovesicles containing bioactive constituents such as miRNA, mRNA, protein, and lipids obtained from plant cells, that can participate in intercellular communication and mediate transboundary communication, have high bioavailability and low immunogenicity, are relatively safe, and have been shown to play an important role in maintaining cell homeostasis and preventing, and treating a variety of diseases. In this review, we describe the biogenesis, isolation and purification methods, structural composition, stability, safety, function of PELNs and challenges. The functions of PELNs in anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumor and drug delivery are mainly described, and the status of research on exosome nanoparticles of Chinese herbal medicines is outlined. Overall, we summarized the importance of PELNs and the latest research results in this field and provided a theoretical basis for the future research and clinical application of PELNs.

Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic application of extracellular vesicles from plants

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) isolated from animal sources are among the most investigated types of cell-free therapeutic tools to cure different diseases. sEVs have been isolated from a variety of sources, ranging from prokaryotes to animals and plants. Human-derived sEVs have many uses in pre- and clinical studies in medicine and drug delivery, while plant-derived EVs, also known as plant-derived nanovesicles (PDNVs), have not been widely investigated until the second decade of the 21st century. For the past five years, there has been a rapid rise in the use of plant EVs as a therapeutic tool due to the ease of massive production with high efficacy and yield of preparation. Plant EVs contain various active biomolecules such as proteins, regulatory RNAs, and secondary metabolites and play a key role in inter-kingdom communications. Many studies have already investigated the potential application of plant EVs in preventing and treating cancer, inflammation, infectious diseases, and tissue regeneration with no sign of toxicity and are therefore considered safe. However, due to a lack of universal markers, the properties of plant EVs have not been extensively studied. Concerns regarding the safety and therapeutic function of plant EVs derived from genetically modified plants have been raised. In this paper, we review the physiological role of EVs in plants. Moreover, we focus on molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the therapeutic effects of plant EVs on various human diseases. We also provide detailed information on the methodological aspects of plant EV isolation and analysis, which could pave the way for future clinical translation.

Engineered plant extracellular vesicles for natural delivery across physiological barriers

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale luminal vesicles that participate in the information transfer of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids between cells, thereby playing a role in the treatment of diseases and the delivery of nutrients. In recent years, plant-derived EVs (PDEVs) containing bioactive compounds have attracted increasing interest due to their better biocompatibility and lower cytotoxicity in healthy tissues. In the biomedical field, PDEVs have been used as cargo carriers to achieve various functions through engineering modification techniques. This review focuses on the biogenesis, isolation, and identification of PDEVs. We discuss the surface functionalization of PDEVs to enhance therapeutic efficacy, thereby improving their efficiency as a next-generation drug delivery vehicle and their feasibility to treat diseases across the physiological barriers, while critically analyzing the current challenges and opportunities.

Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles: Emerging Nanosystems for Enhanced Tissue Engineering

Tissue engineering holds great potential for tissue repair and rejuvenation. Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) have recently emerged as a promising avenue in tissue engineering. However, there is an urgent need to understand how plant ELNs can be therapeutically applied in clinical disease management, especially for tissue regeneration. In this review, we comprehensively examine the properties, characteristics, and isolation techniques of plant ELNs. We also discuss their impact on the immune system, compatibility with the human body, and their role in tissue regeneration. To ensure the suitability of plant ELNs for tissue engineering, we explore various engineering and modification strategies. Additionally, we provide insights into the progress of commercialization and industrial perspectives on plant ELNs. This review aims to highlight the potential of plant ELNs in regenerative medicine by exploring the current research landscape and key findings.

Role of MicroRNAs in Dietary Interventions for Obesity and Obesity-Related Diseases

Obesity and related metabolic syndromes pose a serious threat to human health and quality of life. A proper diet is a safe and effective strategy to prevent and control obesity, thus maintaining overall health. However, no consensus exists on the connotations of proper diet, and it is attributed to various factors, including "nutritional dark matter" and the "matrix effect" of food. Accumulating evidence confirms that obesity is associated with the in vivo levels of miRNAs, which serve as potential markers and regulatory targets for obesity onset and progression; food-derived miRNAs can regulate host obesity by targeting the related genes or gut microbiota across the animal kingdom. Host miRNAs mediate food nutrient-gut microbiota-obesity interactions. Thus, miRNAs are important correlates of diet and obesity onset. This review outlines the recent findings on miRNA-mediated food interventions for obesity, thereby elucidating their potential applications. Overall, we provide new perspectives and views on the evaluation of dietary nutrition, which may bear important implications for dietary control and obesity prevention.

Rgl-exomiR-7972, a novel plant exosomal microRNA derived from fresh Rehmanniae Radix, ameliorated lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury and gut dysbiosis

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) have been proposed as a novel therapeutic tool for preventing human diseases. However, the number of well-verified plant ELNs remains limited. In this study, the microRNAs in ELNs derived from fresh Rehmanniae Radix, a well-known traditional Chinese herb for treating inflammatory and metabolic diseases, were determined by using microRNA sequencing to investigate the active components in the ELNs and the protection against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung inflammation in vivo and in vitro. The results showed that rgl-miR-7972 (miR-7972) was the main ingredient in ELNs. It exerted stronger protective activities against LPS-induced acute lung inflammation than catalpol and acteoside, which are two well-known chemical markers in this herb. Moreover, miR-7972 decreased the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) in LPS-exposed RAW264.7 cells, thereby facilitating M2 macrophage polarization. Mechanically, miR-7972 downregulated the expression of G protein-coupled receptor 161 (GPR161), activating the Hedgehog pathway, and inhibited the biofilm form of Escherichia coli via targeting virulence gene sxt2. Therefore, miR-7972 derived from fresh R. Radix alleviated LPS-induced lung inflammation by targeting the GPR161-mediated Hedgehog pathway, recovering gut microbiota dysbiosis. It also provided a new direction for gaining novel bioactivity nucleic acid drugs and broadening the knowledge on cross-kingdom physiological regulation through miRNAs.

Plant-derived nanovesicles: Further exploration of biomedical function and application potential

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are phospholipid bilayer vesicles actively secreted by cells, that contain a variety of functional nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, and are important mediums of intercellular communication. Based on their natural properties, EVs can not only retain the pharmacological effects of their source cells but also serve as natural delivery carriers. Among them, plant-derived nanovesicles (PNVs) are characterized as natural disease therapeutics with many advantages such as simplicity, safety, eco-friendliness, low cost, and low toxicity due to their abundant resources, large yield, and low risk of immunogenicity in vivo. This review systematically introduces the biogenesis, isolation methods, physical characterization, and components of PNVs, and describes their administration and cellular uptake as therapeutic agents. We highlight the therapeutic potential of PNVs as therapeutic agents and drug delivery carriers, including anti-inflammatory, anticancer, wound healing, regeneration, and antiaging properties as well as their potential use in the treatment of liver disease and COVID-19. Finally, the toxicity and immunogenicity, the current clinical application, and the possible challenges in the future development of PNVs were analyzed. We expect the functions of PNVs to be further explored to promote clinical translation, thereby facilitating the development of a new framework for the treatment of human diseases.

Advances in the Therapeutic Applications of Plant-Derived Exosomes in the Treatment of Inflammatory Diseases

Plant-derived exosomes (PLDEs) are small extracellular vesicles that encapsulate proteins, nucleic acids and lipids, and they are usually involved in intercellular communication and molecular transport in plants. PLDEs are widely used in the therapy of diseases due to their abundance and easy availability. The diverse roles of PLDEs, which include transportation of drugs, acting as biomarkers for diagnosis of diseases and their roles in different therapies, suggest that there is a need to fully understand all the mechanisms involved in order to provide the optimum conditions for their therapeutic use. This review summarizes the biogenesis, components and functions of PLDEs and focuses on their use as therapeutic agents in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. It also explores new ideas for novel approaches in which PLDEs could potentially help patients with inflammatory diseases in the future.

Oral Administration as a Potential Alternative for the Delivery of Small Extracellular Vesicles

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) have burst into biomedicine as a natural therapeutic alternative for different diseases. Considered nanocarriers of biological origin, various studies have demonstrated the feasibility of their systemic administration, even with repeated doses. However, despite being the preferred route of physicians and patients, little is known about the clinical use of sEVs in oral administration. Different reports show that sEVs can resist the degradative conditions of the gastrointestinal tract after oral administration, accumulating regionally in the intestine, where they are absorbed for systemic biodistribution. Notably, observations demonstrate the efficacy of using sEVs as a nanocarrier system for a therapeutic payload to obtain a desired biological (therapeutic) effect. From another perspective, the information to date indicates that food-derived vesicles (FDVs) could be considered future nutraceutical agents since they contain or even overexpress different nutritional compounds of the foods from which they are derived, with potential effects on human health. In this review, we present and critically analyze the current information on the pharmacokinetics and safety profile of sEVs when administered orally. We also address the molecular and cellular mechanisms that promote intestinal absorption and that command the therapeutic effects that have been observed. Finally, we analyze the potential nutraceutical impact that FDVs would have on human health and how their oral use could be an emerging strategy to balance nutrition in people.

Anti-fibrotic effect of extracellular vesicles derived from tea leaves in hepatic stellate cells and liver fibrosis mice

Background

Activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) is essential for the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis, there is no effective drug used to prevent or reverse the fibrotic process.

Methods

With human hepatic stellate cell line LX-2 and mouse model of CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis, we investigated the anti-fibrotic effect to liver fibrosis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) extracted from tea leaves through cytological tests such as cell proliferation, cell migration, and cell fibrotic marker.

Results

It was found that tea-derived EVs (TEVs) inhibited HSCs activation. In CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis model, TEVs treatment can significantly improve the pathological changes of liver tissue, inhibit collagen deposition, reduce the number of lipid droplets in liver tissue, and reduce serum AST and ALT levels. In addition, TEVs inhibited TGF-β1 signaling and miR-44 in TEVs had the potential inhibitory effect on liver fibrosis.

Conclusions

Taken together, our work suggesting that TEVs are novel therapeutic potential for liver fibrosis.

Extracellular vesicles isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley plants exhibit no growth inhibition or gene silencing in Fusarium graminearum

Numerous reports have shown that incorporating a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-expressing transgene into plants or applying dsRNA by spraying it onto their leaves successfully protects them against invading pathogens exploiting the mechanism of RNA interference (RNAi). How dsRNAs or siRNAs are transferred between donor host cells and recipient fungal cells is largely unknown. It is speculated that plant extracellular vesicles (EVs) function as RNA shuttles between plants and their pathogens. Recently, we found that EVs isolated from host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) or spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS) plants contained dsRNA-derived siRNAs. In this study, we evaluated whether isolated EVs from dsRNA-sprayed barley (Hordeum vulgare) plants affected the growth of the phytopathogenic ascomycete Fusarium graminearum. Encouraged by our previous finding that dropping barley-derived EVs on F. graminearum cultures caused fungal stress phenotypes, we conducted an in vitro growth experiment in microtiter plates where we co-cultivated F. graminearum with plant EVs isolated from dsRNA-sprayed barley leaves. We observed that co-cultivation of F. graminearum macroconidia with barley EVs did not affect fungal growth. Furthermore, plant EVs containing SIGS-derived siRNA appeared not to affect F. graminearum growth and showed no gene silencing activity on F. graminearum CYP51 genes. Based on our findings, we concluded that either the amount of SIGS-derived siRNA was insufficient to induce target gene silencing in F. graminearum, indicating that the role of EVs in SIGS is minor, or that F. graminearum uptake of plant EVs from liquid cultures was inefficient or impossible.

New insights of engineering plant exosome-like nanovesicles as a nanoplatform for therapeutics and drug delivery

Plant exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNVs) are membrane-encapsulated nanostructures released from cells into their surroundings. PELNVs have an important role in intercellular and interspecies communication in all three domains of life. They act as protective compartments for the long-distance transit of signal molecules like proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and other metabolites. A range of plants and vegetables can emit PELNVs. The importance of PELNVs in interspecies communication stems from their concentration in biomolecules (lipids, proteins, and miRNAs), lack of toxicity, ease of internalization by cells, and anti-inflammatory, immune-modulatory, and regenerative characteristics. PELNVs derived from numerous fruits and vegetables are biocompatible, biodegradable, and abundant in various plant species. Moreover, their convincing physicochemical characteristics underpin their modulative role in physiological and pathological processes, all of which have fueled speculation that these nanovesicles could be particularly adept at developing future-generation bio-therapeutic platforms. The goal of this review was not only to present an overview of the identified roles of PELNVs in physiology and pathology, but also to provide new insight toward their engineering for effective therapeutics and drug delivery nanoplatforms, a clue for future direction to the ongoing research gaps.

Theragnostic Applications of Mammal and Plant-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Latest Findings, Current Technologies, and Prospects

The way cells communicate is not fully understood. However, it is well-known that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are involved. Researchers initially thought that EVs were used by cells to remove cellular waste. It is now clear that EVs function as signaling molecules released by cells to communicate with one another, carrying a cargo representing the mother cell. Furthermore, these EVs can be found in all biological fluids, making them the perfect non-invasive diagnostic tool, as their cargo causes functional changes in the cells upon receiving, unlike synthetic drug carriers. EVs last longer in circulation and instigate minor immune responses, making them the perfect drug carrier. This review sheds light on the latest development in EVs isolation, characterization and, application as therapeutic cargo, novel drug loading techniques, and diagnostic tools. We also address the advancement in plant-derived EVs, their characteristics, and applications; since plant-derived EVs only recently gained focus, we listed the latest findings. Although there is much more to learn about, EV is a wide field of research; what scientists have discovered so far is fascinating. This paper is suitable for those new to the field seeking to understand EVs and those already familiar with it but wanting to review the latest findings.

Advances in Bioactivity of MicroRNAs of Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles and Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

MicroRNA (miRNA) is a class of small noncoding RNA involved in physiological and pathological processes via the regulation of gene expression. Naked miRNAs are unstable and liable to degradation by RNases. Exosome-like nanoparticles (ELNs) secreted by plants and extracellular vesicles (EVs) found in milk are abundant in miRNAs, which can be carried by ELNs and EVs to target cells to exert their bioactivities. In this review, we describe the current understanding of miRNAs in plant ELNs and milk EVs, summarize their important roles in regulation of inflammation, intestinal barrier, tumors, and infantile immunological functions, and also discuss the adverse effect of EV miRNAs on human health. Additionally, we prospect recent challenges centered around ELN and EV miRNAs for interventional applications and provide insights of grain-derived ELNs and miRNAs interventional use in human health. Overall, plant ELNs and milk EVs can transfer miRNAs to mitigate the pathological status of recipient cells by mediating the expression of target genes but may also exert some side effects. More studies are required to elucidate the in-depth understanding of potential interventional effects of ELN and EV miRNAs on human health.

Immunomodulatory Properties of Human Breast Milk: MicroRNA Contents and Potential Epigenetic Effects

Infants who are exclusively breastfed in the first six months of age receive adequate nutrients, achieving optimal immune protection and growth. In addition to the known nutritional components of human breast milk (HBM), i.e., water, carbohydrates, fats and proteins, it is also a rich source of microRNAs, which impact epigenetic mechanisms. This comprehensive work presents an up-to-date overview of the immunomodulatory constituents of HBM, highlighting its content of circulating microRNAs. The epigenetic effects of HBM are discussed, especially those regulated by miRNAs. HBM contains more than 1400 microRNAs. The majority of these microRNAs originate from the lactating gland and are based on the remodeling of cells in the gland during breastfeeding. These miRNAs can affect epigenetic patterns by several mechanisms, including DNA methylation, histone modifications and RNA regulation, which could ultimately result in alterations in gene expressions. Therefore, the unique microRNA profile of HBM, including exosomal microRNAs, is implicated in the regulation of the genes responsible for a variety of immunological and physiological functions, such as FTO, INS, IGF1, NRF2, GLUT1 and FOXP3 genes. Hence, studying the HBM miRNA composition is important for improving the nutritional approaches for pregnancy and infant's early life and preventing diseases that could occur in the future. Interestingly, the composition of miRNAs in HBM is affected by multiple factors, including diet, environmental and genetic factors.

Plant-Derived Exosomes as A Drug-Delivery Approach for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Colitis-Associated Cancer

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent intestinal disease and includes Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Due to the complex etiology of colitis, the current treatments of IBD are quite limited and are mainly concentrated on the remission of the disease. In addition, the side effects of conventional drugs on the body cannot be ignored. IBD also has a certain relationship with colitis-associated cancer (CAC), and inflammatory cells can produce a large number of tumor-promoting cytokines to promote tumor progression. In recent years, exosomes from plants have been found to have the ability to load drugs to target the intestine and have great potential for the treatment of intestinal diseases. This plant-derived exosome-targeting delivery system can load chemical or nucleic acid drugs and deliver them to intestinal inflammatory sites stably and efficiently. This review summarizes the pathophysiological characteristics of IBD and CAC as well as the application and prospect of plant exosomes in the treatment of IBD and CAC.

Edible plant-derived nanotherapeutics and nanocarriers: recent progress and future directions

INTRODUCTION

High drug delivery efficiency, desirable therapeutic effects, and low toxicity have become crucial to develop nanotherapeutics. Natural nanoparticles (NPs) from edible plants contain a large quantity of bioactive small molecules, proteins, glycolipids, and microRNAs. The development of these NPs has rapidly attracted increasing attention due to their merits of green production, excellent biocompatibility, anti-inflammatory activities, and antitumor capacities.

AREAS COVERED

Here, we introduce the extraction, purification, and construction strategies of plant-derived exosome-like NPs (PDENs) and expound on their physicochemical properties, biomedical functions, and therapeutic effects against various diseases. We also recapitulate future directions and challenges of the emerging nanotherapeutics.

EXPERT OPINION

PDENs have been used as natural nanotherapeutics and nanocarriers. The challenges of applying PDENs primarily stem from the lack of understanding of the mechanisms that drive the tissue-specific targeting properties. Elucidating the underlying targeting mechanisms is one of the major focuses in this review, which helps to gain new research opportunities for the development of natural nanotherapeutics. Despite excellent biosafety and therapeutic effects in the treatment of various diseases, the medical translation of these NPs has still been limited by low yields and cold-chain dependence. Therefore, exploiting new techniques will be required for their massive production and storage.

Targeting Autophagy with Natural Products as a Potential Therapeutic Approach for Cancer

Macro-autophagy (autophagy) is a highly conserved eukaryotic intracellular process of self-digestion caused by lysosomes on demand, which is upregulated as a survival strategy upon exposure to various stressors, such as metabolic insults, cytotoxic drugs, and alcohol abuse. Paradoxically, autophagy dysfunction also contributes to cancer and aging. It is well known that regulating autophagy by targeting specific regulatory molecules in its machinery can modulate multiple disease processes. Therefore, autophagy represents a significant pharmacological target for drug development and therapeutic interventions in various diseases, including cancers. According to the framework of autophagy, the suppression or induction of autophagy can exert therapeutic properties through the promotion of cell death or cell survival, which are the two main events targeted by cancer therapies. Remarkably, natural products have attracted attention in the anticancer drug discovery field, because they are biologically friendly and have potential therapeutic effects. In this review, we summarize the up-to-date knowledge regarding natural products that can modulate autophagy in various cancers. These findings will provide a new position to exploit more natural compounds as potential novel anticancer drugs and will lead to a better understanding of molecular pathways by targeting the various autophagy stages of upcoming cancer therapeutics.

Identification of Tomato Infecting Viruses That Co-Isolate with Nanovesicles Using a Combined Proteomics and Electron-Microscopic Approach

Plant-derived nanovesicles (NVs) have attracted interest due to their anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antioxidative properties and their efficient uptake by human intestinal epithelial cells. Previously we showed that tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit is one of the interesting plant resources from which NVs can be obtained at a high yield. In the course of the isolation of NVs from different batches of tomatoes, using the established differential ultracentrifugation or size-exclusion chromatography methods, we occasionally observed the co-isolation of viral particles. Density gradient ultracentrifugation (gUC), using sucrose or iodixanol gradient materials, turned out to be efficient in the separation of NVs from the viral particles. We applied cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for the morphological assessment and LC-MS/MS-based proteomics for the protein identification of the gradient fractions. Cryo-TEM showed that a low-density gUC fraction was enriched in membrane-enclosed NVs, while the high-density fractions were rich in rod-shaped objects. Mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis identified capsid proteins of tomato brown rugose fruit virus, tomato mosaic virus and tomato mottle mosaic virus. In another batch of tomatoes, we isolated tomato spotted wilt virus, potato virus Y and southern tomato virus in the vesicle sample. Our results show the frequent co-isolation of plant viruses with NVs and the utility of the combination of cryo-TEM, SEM and proteomics in the detection of possible viral contamination.