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Greco MF, Rizzuto AS, Zarà M, Cafora M, Favero C, Solazzo G, Giusti I, Adorni MP, Zimetti F, Dolo V, Banfi C, Ferri N, Sirtori CR, Corsini A, Barbieri SS, Pistocchi A, Bollati V, Macchi C, Ruscica M. PCSK9 Confers Inflammatory Properties to Extracellular Vesicles Released by Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:13065. [PMID: 36361853 PMCID: PMC9655172 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232113065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 10/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are key participants in both early- and late-stage atherosclerosis and influence neighbouring cells possibly by means of bioactive molecules, some of which are packed into extracellular vesicles (EVs). Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) is expressed and secreted by VSMCs. This study aimed to unravel the role of PCSK9 on VSMCs-derived EVs in terms of content and functionality. EVs were isolated from human VSMCs overexpressing human PCSK9 (VSMCPCSK9-EVs) and tested on endothelial cells, monocytes, macrophages and in a model of zebrafish embryos. Compared to EVs released from wild-type VSMCs, VSMCPCSK9-EVs caused a rise in the expression of adhesion molecules in endothelial cells and of pro-inflammatory cytokines in monocytes. These acquired an increased migratory capacity, a reduced oxidative phosphorylation and secreted proteins involved in immune response and immune effector processes. Concerning macrophages, VSMCPCSK9-EVs enhanced inflammatory milieu and uptake of oxidized low-density lipoproteins, whereas the migratory capacity was reduced. When injected into zebrafish embryos, VSMCPCSK9-EVs favoured the recruitment of macrophages toward the site of injection. The results of the present study provide evidence that PCSK9 plays an inflammatory role by means of EVs, at least by those derived from smooth muscle cells of vascular origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Francesca Greco
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandra Stefania Rizzuto
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Marta Zarà
- Centro Cardiologico Monzino, Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Cafora
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Favero
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Solazzo
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Ilaria Giusti
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, Università degli Studi dell'Aquila, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Maria Pia Adorni
- Unit of Neuroscience, Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università degli Studi di Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Francesca Zimetti
- Department of Food and Drug, Università degli Studi di Parma, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Vincenza Dolo
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Sciences, Università degli Studi dell'Aquila, 67100 L'Aquila, Italy
| | - Cristina Banfi
- Centro Cardiologico Monzino, Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Nicola Ferri
- Department of Medicine, Università degli Studi di Padova, 35100 Padua, Italy
| | - Cesare R Sirtori
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Alberto Corsini
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Stella Barbieri
- Centro Cardiologico Monzino, Istituti di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCCS), 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Anna Pistocchi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational, Università degli Studi di Milano, L.I.T.A., 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Bollati
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Macchi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Ruscica
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
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PCSK9 Affects Astrocyte Cholesterol Metabolism and Reduces Neuron Cholesterol Supplying In Vitro: Potential Implications in Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232012192. [PMID: 36293049 PMCID: PMC9602670 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232012192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin Type 9 (PCSK9) involvement in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is poorly investigated. We evaluated the in vitro PCSK9 modulation of astrocyte cholesterol metabolism and neuronal cholesterol supplying, which is fundamental for neuronal functions. Moreover, we investigated PCSK9 neurotoxic effects. In human astrocytoma cells, PCSK9 reduced cholesterol content (−20%; p < 0.05), with a greater effect in presence of beta amyloid peptide (Aβ) (−37%; p < 0.01). PCSK9 increased cholesterol synthesis and reduced the uptake of apoE-HDL-derived cholesterol (−36%; p < 0.0001), as well as the LDL receptor (LDLR) and the apoE receptor 2 (ApoER2) expression (−66% and −31%, respectively; p < 0.01). PCSK9 did not modulate ABCA1- and ABCG1-cholesterol efflux, ABCA1 levels, or membrane cholesterol. Conversely, ABCA1 expression and activity, as well as membrane cholesterol, were reduced by Aβ (p < 0.05). In human neuronal cells, PCSK9 reduced apoE-HDL-derived cholesterol uptake (−41%; p < 0.001) and LDLR/apoER2 expression (p < 0.05). Reduced cholesterol internalization occurred also in PCSK9-overexpressing neurons exposed to an astrocyte-conditioned medium (−39%; p < 0.001). PCSK9 reduced neuronal cholesterol content overall (−29%; p < 0.05) and increased the Aβ-induced neurotoxicity (p < 0.0001). Our data revealed an interfering effect of PCSK9, in cooperation with Aβ, on brain cholesterol metabolism leading to neuronal cholesterol reduction, a potentially deleterious effect. PCSK9 also exerted a neurotoxic effect, and thus represents a potential pharmacological target in AD.
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Pharmacological prevention of intimal hyperplasia: A state-of-the-art review. Pharmacol Ther 2022; 235:108157. [PMID: 35183591 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2022.108157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Intimal hyperplasia (IH) occurs in a considerable number of cases of blood vessel reconstruction by stenting or balloon angioplasty, venous bypass grafting, and arteriovenous dialysis accesses. It is triggered by endothelial injury during the vascular intervention and leads to vessel restenosis with life-threatening consequences for patients. To date, the drugs used for IH prevention in clinics-paclitaxel and rapalog drugs-have been focusing primarily on the vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation pathway of IH development. Limitations, such as endothelial toxicity and inappropriate drug administration timing, have spurred the search for new and efficient pharmacological approaches to control IH. In this state-of-the-art review, we present the pathways of IH development, focusing on the key events and actors involved in IH. Subsequently, we discuss different drugs and drug combinations interfering with these pathways based on their effect on peripheral circulation IH models in animal studies, or on clinical reports. The reports were obtained through an extensive search of peer-reviewed publications in Pubmed, Embase, and Google Scholar, with search equations composed based on five concepts around IH and their various combinations. To improve vascular intervention outcomes, rethinking of conventional therapeutic approaches to IH prevention is needed. Exploring local application of drugs and drug combinations acting on different pathophysiological pathways of IH development has the potential to provide effective and safe restenosis prevention.
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Guo Y, Tang Z, Yan B, Yin H, Tai S, Peng J, Cui Y, Gui Y, Belke D, Zhou S, Zheng XL. PCSK9 (Proprotein Convertase Subtilisin/Kexin Type 9) Triggers Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Senescence and Apoptosis: Implication of Its Direct Role in Degenerative Vascular Disease. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2021; 42:67-86. [PMID: 34809446 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.121.316902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE PCSK9 (proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9) plays a critical role in cholesterol metabolism via the PCSK9-LDLR (low-density lipoprotein receptor) axis in the liver; however, evidence indicates that PCSK9 directly contributes to the pathogenesis of various diseases through mechanisms independent of its LDL-cholesterol regulation. The objective of this study was to determine how PCSK9 directly acts on vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs), contributing to degenerative vascular disease. Approach and Results: We first examined the effects of PCSK9 on cultured human aortic SMCs. Overexpression of PCSK9 downregulated the expression of ApoER2 (apolipoprotein E receptor 2), a known target of PCSK9. Treatment with soluble recombinant human ApoER2 or the DNA synthesis inhibitor, hydroxyurea, inhibited PCSK9-induced polyploidization and other cellular responses of human SMCs. Treatment with antibodies against ApoER2 resulted in similar effects to those observed with PCSK9 overexpression. Inducible, SMC-specific knockout of Pcsk9 accelerated neointima formation in mouse carotid arteries and reduced age-related arterial stiffness. PCSK9 was expressed in SMCs of human atherosclerotic lesions and abundant in the "shoulder" regions of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. PCSK9 was also expressed in SMCs of abdominal aortic aneurysm, which was inversely related to the expression of smooth muscle α-actin. CONCLUSIONS Our findings demonstrate that PCSK9 inhibits proliferation and induces polyploidization, senescence, and apoptosis, which may be relevant to various degenerative vascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanan Guo
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Physiology and Pharmacology (Y. Guo, Z.T., B.Y., H.Y., Y. Gui, X.-L. Zheng).,Department of Cardiology, the Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China (Y. Guo, S.T., S.Z.)
| | - Zhihan Tang
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Physiology and Pharmacology (Y. Guo, Z.T., B.Y., H.Y., Y. Gui, X.-L. Zheng).,Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan (Z.T., B.Y., J.P., Y.C.)
| | - Binjie Yan
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Physiology and Pharmacology (Y. Guo, Z.T., B.Y., H.Y., Y. Gui, X.-L. Zheng).,Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan (Z.T., B.Y., J.P., Y.C.)
| | - Hao Yin
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Physiology and Pharmacology (Y. Guo, Z.T., B.Y., H.Y., Y. Gui, X.-L. Zheng).,Now with Robarts Research Institute, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, Canada (H.Y.)
| | - Shi Tai
- Department of Cardiology, the Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China (Y. Guo, S.T., S.Z.)
| | - Juan Peng
- Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan (Z.T., B.Y., J.P., Y.C.)
| | - Yuting Cui
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Physiology and Pharmacology (Y. Guo, Z.T., B.Y., H.Y., Y. Gui, X.-L. Zheng).,Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, Key Laboratory for Arteriosclerology of Hunan Province, Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Arteriosclerotic Disease, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Hengyang Medical School, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan (Z.T., B.Y., J.P., Y.C.)
| | - Yu Gui
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Physiology and Pharmacology (Y. Guo, Z.T., B.Y., H.Y., Y. Gui, X.-L. Zheng)
| | - Darrell Belke
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Physiology and Pharmacology (Y. Guo, Z.T., B.Y., H.Y., Y. Gui, X.-L. Zheng)
| | - Shenghua Zhou
- Department of Cardiology, the Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, China (Y. Guo, S.T., S.Z.)
| | - Xi-Long Zheng
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Physiology and Pharmacology (Y. Guo, Z.T., B.Y., H.Y., Y. Gui, X.-L. Zheng)
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