An Overview: The Toxicity of Ageratina adenophora on Animals and Its Possible Interventions

Ethnobotanical surveys reveal the crucial role of medicinal plants in the primary healthcare system of the Shan people in Myanmar

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The Shan people of Myanmar live under conditions of longtime social instability and public medical resources inadequate, which tend to strengthen the reliance on local traditional primary healthcare system. The documentation of this kind of resource, however, was rarely and inadequate to support any kind of dynamic trend evaluation. Being an ethnobotanical study, we conducted field survey in the Southern Shan State of Myanmar and aimed to 1) document the local plant species that adopted for primary healthcare purpose, 2) clarify how these species collectively address the broad range of primary medication needs for local people, and 3) lay foundation for dynamic trend evaluation of the role of local medicinal plants under this kind of social and cultural context.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Field surveys were conducted with 124 informants in eight villages. We collected 1259 use reports and documented all the plant species used for treating all the mentioned ailment types. The ailments were translated into their emic meaning and then classified into common disease categories. The top ranked and newly recorded plants or ailment types were analyzed based on historical records from the region.

RESULTS

Totally 156 plant species were used for treating 91 ailments belonging to 16 disease categories, with skin problems and digestive tract were the top cited diseases, and with Fabaceae and Lamiaceae were the top cited plant families. A total of 19 newly recorded plant species were suggested as new member of Myanmar medicinal plant list. Besides, we filled the gaps (for 24 species) and enriched the types (for 83 species) of applicable ailments for known Myanmar medicinal plants.

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed that the Shan people in Southern Shan State used rich plant species for various therapeutic purposes. Our findings indicate the crucial role of local plant resources for local people's primary healthcare needs and support further study about cultural or regional comparation or historical dynamic trend of the medicinal plants uses in areas facing longtime official or public medical resource inadequate.

Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory function of Eupatorium adenophora Spreng leaves (EASL) on human intestinal Caco-2 cells treated with tert-butyl hydroperoxide

Chronic non-communicable diseases (CNCDs) pose a significant public health challenge. Addressing this issue, there has been a notable breakthrough in the prevention and mitigation of NCDs through the use of antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents. In this study, we aim to explore the effectiveness of Eupatorium adenophora Spreng leaves (EASL) as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent, and its potential applications. To construct a cellular model of oxidative damage and inflammation, Caco-2 cells were treated with tert-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP). The biocompatibility of EASL-AE with Caco-2 cells was assessed using the MTT assay, while compatibility was further verified by measuring LDH release and the protective effect against oxidative damage was also assessed using the MTT assay. Additionally, we measured intracellular oxidative stress indicators such as ROS and 8-OHdG, as well as inflammatory pathway signalling protein NFκB and inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-1β using ELISA, to evaluate the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory capacity of EASL-AE. The scavenging capacity of EASL-AE against free radicals was determined through the DPPH Assay and ABTS Assay. Furthermore, we measured the total phenolic, total flavonoid, and total polysaccharide contents using common chemical methods. The chemical composition of EASL-AE was analyzed using the LC-MS/MS technique. Our findings demonstrate that EASL-AE is biocompatible with Caco-2 cells and non-toxic at experimental levels. Moreover, EASL-AE exhibits a significant protective effect on Caco-2 cells subjected to oxidative damage. The antioxidant effect of EASL-AE involves the scavenging of intracellular ROS, while its anti-inflammatory effect is achieved by down-regulation of the NFκB pathway. Which in turn reduces the release of inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-1β. Through LC-MS/MS analysis, we identified 222 compounds in EASL-AE, among which gentianic acid, procaine and L-tyrosine were the compounds with high antioxidant capacity and may be the effective constituent for EASL-AE with antioxidant activity. These results suggest that EASL-AE is a natural and high-quality antioxidant and anti-inflammatory biomaterial that warrants further investigation. It holds great potential for applications in healthcare and other related fields.

Ageratina adenophora causes intestinal integrity damage in goats via the activation of the MLCK/ROCK signaling pathway

As a global toxin invasive species, the whole herb of Ageratina adenophora (A. adenophora) contains various sesquiterpenes, which can cause various degrees of toxic reactions characterized by inflammatory damage when ingested by animals. Current studies on the toxicity of A. adenophora have focused on parenchymatous organs such as the liver and spleen, but few studies have been conducted on the intestine as the organ that is first exposed to A. adenophora and digests and absorbs its toxic components. In this study, after feeding goats with 40 % A. adenophora herb powder for 90 d, we found that the intestinal structure of goats showed pathological changes characterized, and the damage to the small intestinal segments was more severe than that of the large intestine. The MLCK/ROCK signaling pathway was activated, the cytoskeleton underwent centripetal contraction, the composition of tight junctions between intestinal epithelial cells was altered table, Occludin, Claudin-1 and Zonula occluden (ZO-1) amount was decreased, and the intestinal mechanical barrier was disrupted. The intestinal damage markers diamine oxidase (DAO) and D-lactate (D-LA) levels were elevated. In addition, we also found that intestinal bacteria translocate and enter the portal vein to colonize the liver and mesenteric lymph nodes. The expression of intestinal pro-inflammatory factors and anti-inflammatory factors was changed, the intestinal immune function was disrupted. The present study is the first to analyze the mechanism of poisoning of A. adenophora from the intestinal tract in compound-gastric animals.

Study on the chronic inflammatory injury caused by Ageratina adenophora on goat liver using metabolomics

Ageratina adenophora (A. adenophora) is an invasive plant that is harmful to animals. The plants toxic effects on the liver have been studied in detail, however, the inflammation aspects of the hepatotoxicity are rarely discussed in literature. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the level of inflammation and the associated changes in liver metabolism caused by A. adenophora ingestion. Goat were fed with A. adenophora powder which accounts for 40% of the forage for 90 d. After the feeding period, the liver tissues were collected and the level of inflammation was detected using H & E staining and the changes in metabolites by LC-MS/MS. The results indicated that A. adenophora changes the liver metabolites, The test group shown 153 different metabolites in liver of which 71 were upregulated and 82 down regulated. We also found two differential metabolic pathways: neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction and pyrimidine metabolism. The changes in the pathway suggested an association with inflammation and with pathological processes such as oxidative stress and apoptosis. In addition, we observed an increase in the levels of serum liver function indexes (AST and ALT), indicating the liver injury. Furthermore, inflammatory cell infiltration and cell degeneration were observed in histopathological sections. In conclusion, this study reveals that A. adenophora causes chronic inflammation and upregulate metabolites related to inflammation in the liver. The study complements the research content of A. adenophora hepatotoxicity and provides a basis for further research by analyzing changes in the liver metabolites.

Equine Crofton Weed (Ageratina spp.) Pneumotoxicity: What Do We Know and What Do We Need to Know?

Crofton weed (Ageratina adenophora) is a global and highly invasive weed, with ingestion causing severe respiratory disease in horses, leading to irreversible and untreatable pulmonary fibrosis and oedema. While reports of equine pneumotoxicity remain common in Australia and New Zealand, equine pneumotoxicity may be underdiagnosed in other countries where Crofton weed is endemic but poorly differentiated. The pathogenesis of Crofton weed toxicity following ingestion has been well described in a number of different animal models, including rodents, rabbits, and goats. However, induced toxicity is organ-selective across different animal species, and these vastly differ from the pathogenesis described in horses, both clinically and after experimental exposure. Sources of variation may include species-specific susceptibility to different toxins present in the plant, different mechanistic processes of toxicity, and species differences in toxin biotransformation and bioactivation across different organs. Considering disease severity and Crofton weed's invasiveness globally, assessing published toxicological and exposure data is necessary to advance research, identify specific toxins for horses, and possible prophylactic and therapeutic strategies. This review presents an overview of the available literature on equine toxicity, parallels between toxicity in horses and other animal species, and important aspects to be included in the future research agenda.

Effects of Septoglomus constrictum and Bacillus cereus on the competitive growth of Ageratina adenophora

Beneficial microorganisms play a pivotal role in the invasion process of exotic plants, including arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and Bacillus. However, limited research exists on the synergistic influence of AMF and Bacillus on the competition between both invasive and native plants. In this study, pot cultures of Ageratina adenophora monoculture, Rabdosia amethystoides monoculture, and A. adenophora and R. amethystoides mixture were used to investigate the effects of dominant AMF (Septoglomus constrictum, SC) and Bacillus cereus (BC), and the co-inoculation of BC and SC on the competitive growth of A. adenophora. The results showed that inoculation with BC, SC, and BC + SC significantly increased the biomass of A. adenophora by 14.77, 112.07, and 197.74%, respectively, in the competitive growth between A. adenophora and R. amethystoides. Additionally, inoculation with BC increased the biomass of R. amethystoides by 185.07%, while inoculation with SC or BC + SC decreased R. amethystoides biomass by 37.31 and 59.70% compared to the uninoculated treatment. Inoculation with BC significantly increased the nutrient contents in the rhizosphere soil of both plants and promoted their growth. Inoculation with SC or SC + BC notably increased the nitrogen and phosphorus contents of A. adenophora, therefore enhancing its competitiveness. Compared with single inoculation, dual inoculation with SC and BC increased AMF colonization rate and Bacillus density, indicating that SC and BC can form a synergistic effect to further enhance the growth and competitiveness of A. adenophora. This study reveals the distinct role of S. constrictum and B. cereus during the invasion of A. adenophora, and provide new clues to the underlying mechanisms of interaction between invasive plant, AMF and Bacillus.

Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Eupatorium adenophorum leaf extract: characterizations, antioxidant, antibacterial and photocatalytic activities

The green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles has tremendous impacts in various fields as found in recent years due to their low cost, easy and environmentally friendly synthesis. In this article, we report a simple and eco-friendly method for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using an aqueous Eupatorium adenophorum (E. adenophorum) leaf extract as a bioreductant. Interestingly, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analysis established that the E. adenophorum extract not only served as a bioreductant but also acted as a capping agent to stabilize the nanoparticles by functionalizing the surfaces. Various characterization techniques were adopted, such as X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), FTIR, ultraviolet-visible absorption (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) to analyze the biosynthesized AgNPs. Biosynthesized nanoparticles were also explored for antioxidant, antibacterial and photocatalytic activities. The AgNPs showed improved free radical scavenging activity (IC₅₀ 48.96 ± 0.84 µg/mL) and bacterial inhibitory effects against both gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus; 64.5 µg/mL) and gram-negative (Escherichia coli; 82.5 µg/mL) bacteria. Photocatalytic investigation showed AgNPs were effective at degrading rhodamine dye (78.69% in 90 min) when exposed to sunlight. These findings collectively suggest that E. adenophorum AgNPs were successfully prepared without the involvement of any hazardous chemical and it may be an effective antibacterial, antioxidant and promising agent for the removal of hazardous dye from waste water produced by industrial dyeing processes.

Traditional Knowledge of Textile Dyeing Plants: A Case Study in the Chin Ethnic Group of Western Myanmar

Traditional knowledge of the plants used for textile dyeing is disappearing due to the utilization of synthetic dyes. Recently, natural products made from plants have gained global interest. Thus, preserving traditional knowledge of textile dyeing plants is crucial. Here, we documented this knowledge by interviewing 2070 informants from 14 communities of the Chin ethnic group of Myanmar. The Chin communities we interviewed used a total of 32 plant species for textile dyeing from 29 genera in 24 families. Chromolaena odorata, Lithocarpus fenestratus, and L. pachyphyllus were the most important dye species. The most common responses described dyes that were red in color, produced from leaves, derived from tree species, collected from the wild, and used as firewood ash as a mordant to fix the dye to the fabrics. According to the IUCN Red List of threatened species, one species was registered as Data Deficient, 20 species still needed to be categorized, and 11 species were categorized as Least Concern. This study will help re-establish the use of natural dyes, encourage the cultural integrity of the indigenous people, and serve as an example for other communities to preserve their traditional knowledge of plant textile dyes.

Effect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on the responses of Ageratina adenophora to Aphis gossypii herbivory

The invasive weed Ageratina adenophora can form a positive symbiotic relationship with native arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to promote its invasion ability. However, the function of AMF during the feeding of Aphis gossypii in A. adenophora was poorly understand. This study aimed to investigate the effects of two dominant AMF (Claroideoglomus etunicatum and Septoglomus constrictum) on A. adenophora in response to the feeding of the generalist herbivore A. gossypii. The results showed that A. gossypii infestation could significantly reduce the biomass, nutrient and proline contents of A. adenophora, and increase the antioxidant enzyme activities, defense hormone and secondary metabolite contents of the weed. Compared with the A. gossypii infested A. adenophora, inoculation C. etunicatum and S. constrictum could significantly promote the growth ability and enhanced the resistance of A. adenophora to A. gossypii infestation, and the aboveground biomass of A. adenophora increased by 317.21% and 114.73%, the root biomass increased by 347.33% and 120.58%, the polyphenol oxidase activity heightened by 57.85% and 12.62%, the jasmonic acid content raised by 13.49% and 4.92%, the flavonoid content increased by 27.29% and 11.92%, respectively. The survival rate of A. gossypii and density of nymphs were significantly inhibited by AMF inoculation, and the effect of C. etunicatum was significantly greater than that of S. constrictum. This study provides clarified evidence that AMF in the rhizosphere of A. adenophora are effective in the development of tolerance and chemical defense under the feeding pressure of insect herbivory, and offer references for the management of the A. adenophora from the perspective of soil microorganisms.

Antibacterial Activity of Two Metabolites Isolated From Endophytic Bacteria Bacillus velezensis Ea73 in Ageratina adenophora

Ageratina adenophora, as an invasive and poisonous weed, seriously affects the ecological diversity and development of animal husbandry. Weed management practitioners have reported that it is very difficult to control A. adenophora invasion. In recent years, many researchers have focused on harnessing the endophytes of the plant as a useful resource for the development of pharmacological products for human and animal use. This study was performed to identify endophytes with antibacterial properties from A. adenophora. Agar well diffusion method and 16S rRNA gene sequencing technique were used to screen and identify endophytes with antibacterial activity. The response surface methodology and prep- high-performance liquid chromatography were used to determine the optimizing fermentation conditions and isolate secondary metabolites, respectively. UV-visible spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance, and high-resolution mass spectrum were used to determine the structures of the isolated metabolites. From the experiment, we isolated a strain of Bacillus velezensis Ea73 (GenBank no. MZ540895) with broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. We also observed that the zone of inhibition of B. velezensis Ea73 against Staphylococcus aureus was the largest when fermentation broth contained 6.55 g/L yeast extract, 6.61 g/L peptone, 20.00 g/L NaCl at broth conditions of 7.95 pH, 51.04 h harvest time, and a temperature of 27.97°C. Two antibacterial peptides, Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val) and Cyclo (L-Leu-L-Pro), were successfully extracted from B. velezensis Ea73. These two peptides exhibited mild inhibition against S. aureus and Escherichia coli. Therefore, we isolated B. velezensis Ea73 with antibacterial activity from A. adenophora. Hence, its metabolites, Cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val) and Cyclo (L-Leu-L-Pro), could further be developed as a substitute for human and animal antibiotics.

Oral Administration of Bacillus toyonensis Strain SAU-20 Improves Insulin Resistance and Ameliorates Hepatic Steatosis in Type 2 Diabetic Mice

In this study, the ameliorative effects of Bacillus toyonensis-SAU-20 (B. toyo SAU-20), a new probiotic strain isolated and identified by our laboratory from Ageratina adenophora, on the development of insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis in type 2 diabetic (T2DM) mice was investigated. Thirty Specific-pathogen free Kunming (SPFKM) mice were randomly allocated to three groups: control, high fat diet/streptozotocin (HFD/STZ), and HFD/STZ+B. toyo SAU-20 groups with oral administration of B. toyo SAU-20 for 35 days. Biochemistry parameters, glucose tolerance, and insulin resistance were measured in the blood whereas histological analysis, inflammatory cytokines and lipogenic genes in the liver tissues. The results showed that, the levels of serum glucose, lipid profile, mRNA expression of lipogenic related genes and pro-inflammatory cytokines were significantly increased in T2DM mice. However, after B. toyo SAU-20 administration, the elevation of these parameters was significantly suppressed (P<0.05). In addition, the feeding of B. toyo SAU-20 significantly improved the morphological changes of the liver with significant alleviation of dyslipidemia, oxidative stress status and inflammation (P<0.05) indicating the ameliorating effect of B. toyo SAU-20 in hepatic steatosis in T2DM. Therefore, we concluded that, B. toyo SAU-20 alleviated insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis by improving the lipid profiles, antioxidant status and downregulating lipogenic genes as well as pro-inflammation cytokines expression.

Bacillus toyonensis SAU-19 and SAU-20 Isolated From Ageratina adenophora Alleviates the Intestinal Structure and Integrity Damage Associated With Gut Dysbiosis in Mice Fed High Fat Diet

This study was performed to identify potential probiotic endophytes from Ageratina adenophora and evaluate their ameliorating effects on gut injury and integrity damage associated with microbiota dysbiosis in mice fed high fat diet. Using morphological and biochemical tests, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing technique, two bacteria endophytes were identified as strains of Bacillus toyonensis and were named Bacillus toyonensis SAU-19 (GenBank No. MW287198) and Bacillus toyonensis SAU-20 (GenBank No. MW287199). Sixty (60) mice were divided into five groups, group 1 was the negative control fed normal diet (NS), group 2 was fed High fat diet (HF), Group 3 was fed High fat diet + 106 Lactobacillus rhamnosus (LGG), group 4 was fed High fat + 106 Bacillus toyonensis SAU-19 and group 5 fed High fat diet + 106 Bacillus toyonensis SAU-20. After 35 days, histological and immunohistochemistry examination were performed in the ileum tissues. Furthermore, DAO and antioxidants activities were measured in serum, mRNA expressions of tight junction proteins (occludin and ZO-1) and inflammation related cytokines (IL-1β, TFN-α, IL-2, IL-4, and IL-10) in the ileum tissues as well as sIgA levels and total bacteria (Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Staphylococcus, and Lactobacillus) in the small intestine and cecum content. The results showed an increase in the DAO activity, oxidative stress parameter (MDA), pro-inflammation cytokines (IL-1β, TFN-α, IL-2), reduce immunity (sIgA), and destroyed intestinal structure and integrity (reduce tight junction proteins) in the high fat diet group and this was associated with destruction of the gut microbiota composition (increasing pathogenic bacteria; E. coli, Salmonella, Staphylococcus and reducing beneficial bacteria, Lactobacillus spp.) in mice (P < 0.05). However, the administration of Bacillus toyonensis SAU-19 and SAU-20 reverted these effects. Our findings indicated that, Bacillus toyonensis SAU-19 and SAU-20 isolated from A. adenophora could prevent the excess weight gain from high fat diet feeding, improved antioxidant status and alleviated the intestine integrity damage as well as reduce the population of enteric bacteria such as E. coli, Salmonella, and S. aureus and increasing the population of beneficial bacteria such as Lactobacillus in the gut of mice fed high fat diet, therefore, can serve as a potential probiotics in humans and animals.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity and Mechanism of Cryptochlorogenic Acid from Ageratina adenophora

Ageratina adenophora is an invasive plant known for its toxicity to livestock. Current research on this plant has shifted from toxicity prevention to the beneficial utilization of plant resources. This study was performed to investigate the effects and mechanisms of cryptochlorogenic acid (CCGA) isolated from Ageratina adenophora on the inflammatory responses induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW264.7 cells. RAW264.7 cells were pretreated with CCGA (200, 100, and 50 μg/mL) and subsequently stimulated with LPS (1 μg/mL) for 16 h. The cytotoxicity of CCGA was tested using the Cell Counting Kit (CCK8). The mechanism of action of CCGA in attenuating inflammation was also identified using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, and Western blot. The results showed that CCGA had a maximal safe concentration of 200 mg/mL. Moreover, CCGA reduced the level of nitric oxide (NO) and iNOS in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells (p < 0.01). In addition, CCGA reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-8) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells at both the mRNA and protein levels (p < 0.01). CCGA prevented the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB) in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells via the inhibition of IKK and IκB phosphorylation and the degradation of IκB proteins (p < 0.01). This finding indicated that CCGA isolated from A. adenophora may be a potential candidate for the treatment of inflammation-related diseases.

Bacillus toyonensis SAU-19 Ameliorates Hepatic Insulin Resistance in High-Fat Diet/Streptozocin-Induced Diabetic Mice

Insulin resistance (IR) is a hallmark of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This study was performed to investigate the antidiabetic effect of Bacillus toyonensis SAU-19 and its possible mechanisms of action in mice with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Thirty SPFKM mice were randomly assigned to three groups: control, diabetic model, and diabetes + Bacillus toyonensis SAU-19 group. After 35 days, blood was collected for biochemical analysis and liver tissue samples for histopathological analysis using H&E staining, qPCR, and ELISA. The results showed that the administration of B. toyonensis SAU-19 significantly improved the blood glucose, hepatic insulin resistance, and morphological changes of the liver characterized by significant improvement of dyslipidemia, glycogen synthesis, and antioxidant status (p < 0.05), indicating the strains’ ameliorating effects on hepatic insulin resistance in T2DM. In conclusion, the probiotic strain (B. toyonensis SAU-19) inhibits T2DM by reducing insulin resistance, improving antioxidant status, and downregulating genes related to glucose synthesis; hence, it may be used in treating diabetes and other metabolic disorders. This study provides the basis for further studies into the molecular mechanisms of B. toyonensis SAU-19 in treating T2DM.